September r, 1888.] the TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. 195 
many of tho harmless species, such as the groen tree- 
suake, the rat-suake, the chameleon-snake, are very 
common, the proportion, cannot be higher than this, 
so that the odds are that, out of every eleven snakes 
you meet, only one would be poisonous. Lot us now 
see if there is not some way of discriminating be - 
twoen harmless and poisonous snakes. The question 
is more or less a special one, but the facts are easily 
mastered. 
Poisonous snakes may be divided into three classes 
— (1) soa snakes, (2) viperiue snakes, and (H) poi- 
sonous oolnbline snakes, which more or less resem- 
ble tho harmless ones. The first class mny bo left 
out of consideration ; thoy live entirely in tho sea, 
and aro not, therefore, likely often to be met 
with. Thoy can be readily recognised by the com- 
pressed shape of their tails ; they are all poison- 
ous. Tho viporino snakes may be divided into 
the pit vipers and the true vipers. The latter 
can be at once recognized by tho head being scaled 
instead of haviug shields, as in other kinds. The pit 
vipers have the head more or less imperfectly 
shielded, but the presence of a deep depression, or 
pit, betweon the eye and nostrils distinguishes them. 
The whole class have flattened triangular heads, 
very distinctly marked off from the neck, and their 
general aspect is ropulsive. The third cl.iss is at 
first sight hardest to discriminate, but there is one 
sure sign by which they can be known, and that is 
the absence of tho loreal shield. If tho head of a 
harmless snake be examined, it will be ioin:d to be 
covered by largo, Hat scales, or plates, of different 
shapes ; these are all known by certain names ; 
that in which the nostril iB situated is culled the 
nasal, those touching the orbit and in front of it 
are called the pneorbital, and between them in the 
harmless snakes there is generally another or some- 
times two, called tho loreal shields. It is tho ab- 
sence of this shield which at once distinguishes trie 
poisonous colubrine snakes. It is truo that tho loreal 
shield is absent in some harmless snakes, but they 
are not many and can bo recognized as harmless by 
other characteristics. If, however, a snake is met 
with not possessing a loreal shield it is better to 
consider it suspicious, and to treat it with caution. 
To consider the question more in detail, the poisonous 
snakes that may bo met with in Southern India are not 
very many. First we havo the "ophiopbagus elaps"or 
"Hamadryad" or snake-eating snake. This is the 
largest of our poisonous snakes, and being hooded like 
the cobra it is easily recognisable. It is only found in 
jungle. The largest recorded is one mentioned by Mr. 
Phipson, the Secretary of the Bombay Natural History 
Society. It was killed in the Goanese ghats, and 
measured fifteen feet five inches. Tue bite of such a 
snake would cause' death to a man in about three 
minutes, probably. It is said to be a fierce snake, and 
has the reputation of attacking any one molesting it, 
but it is probable that this is only the case when it is 
breeding. It is not oorumon, however. I havo only come 
across one in the Travaucore hills. I wis riding with 
a friend, and as I went round a corner I came oh one 
lying in tho path ; my pony went over it without 
touching it, aud I turned to warn my friend. I5ut it 
wag too late, and I saw the snako, with hood extended, 
moving right under his pony. It was a bad moment, 
for had the snake been touched no doubt it would 
havo Btruck, but it was not, ami glided off the path into 
the coffee. It was all over in a few seconds, aud I was 
so intent on looking baek that I never noticed a branch 
across the path which caught me on tho chin and 
knocked mo over my pony's tail. 
The cobra is probably the commonest poisonous 
snake wo have, and nothing need bo said of its ap- 
pearance, as it must bo sufficiently familiar to nil. 
It is the snako usually exhibited by the charmers, 
and is chosen because it is timid and easily managed. 
It is supposed to bo attracted by the musical sound 
of the pipe, and, you will see the charmer mtod in 
front of the snake tootling away, hut always keeping 
Up a side to side movement with the pipe which tho 
snake follows. It is this movement which attracts 
the suake and not tho sound at nil. Let tho pip'< 
bu played behind the suako instead of in front ot it 
and it will take no notice of the mus : c, for it is almost 
deaf. Snakes have no external ear, and no drum to 
their ear, so it is impossible that they can be at all 
sensitive to sound. The Burmese charmers, it is said, 
do all their charming without any piping at all, nor 
do they, as most Indian charmers do, extract the fangs. 
The next poisonous suake is the " Bungarus " or 
" Krait." It grows to about four feet, or a little 
more; it is black above, nnd white below, with 
white arches extending over the back. There is a 
little harmless snake called " Lycodon Aulicus," 
which is to be found about houses, a dark variety 
of which is not unlike the " Krait ", but it can 
always be distinguished by tho presence of tho 
loreal shield, and by the fact that the vertebrae 
scales in the "Krait" are considerably enlarged aud 
are hexagonal in shape. Another species of " Bun- 
garus " may be met with, also coloured black and 
white, but the black bars encircle the body with white 
between. The bite of both these is fatal. The next 
genus is "Callophis." The snakes of this genus are 
not common, and mostly inhabit the hills; their bodies 
are long and slender ; little is known of the effect of 
their bite, but it is probably not fatal. This ends the 
poisonous colubrine-snakes of the viperiue snakes. 
There are four species that may be met witb, but all 
in the hills. Two species of " Trimeresurus, Halys 
Elliotii Peltopelor Macrolepis " and " Hypnale Nepa." 
They can all be recognised by the presence of the pit, 
and by their broad flat heads. I have known a ca'e of 
a E uropean being bitten, I believe by one of these 
" Trimeresurus," without suffering more than some 
pain and swelling of the injured member, and of a 
lCuropeau planter bitten by "Hypuale Nepa " with the 
same effect — both cases happening in the Travaucore 
hills. Without doubt the commonest viper is the 
" Daboia elegaus," or " Russell's" viper. It is quite mi- 
mistakeable ; the broad flat head, the abseuce of 
shields, aud tho chain pattern down its back render it 
easy of identification. When roused it hisses very loudly, 
and this seems generally to irritate dogs, for I have 
known two instances in which dogs have attacked, 
aud have, unfortunately, paid the penalty of their 
temerity. It is a sluggish snake/.however, and not 
easily provoked to bite. The fangs are very long 
and its bite is fatal. The last of the poisonous 
snakes is " Echis Oariuata," also recognizable by its 
flat head, covered with numerous small keeled scales ; 
its bite, if not fatal, is certainly dangerous. It is 
not found in the regiou of heavy rainfall. This ex- 
hausts the list of poisonous snakes to be found iu 
South India. 
What result then have we arrived at 1 There aro 
roughly some twelve distinct species of poiiouous 
snakes to be met with, five of which, the cobra, the 
two species of Bungarus, tho Daboia, aud Echis, are 
to bo found in tho low country ; the rest are con- 
fined to the hills. All these aro easily recognized 
and should bo destroyed wherever met with. Now to 
sum up what has been said. Firstly a snake moves 
by means of its ribs. Secondly, the attribution to 
snakes of a woudorful power of facination is an error. 
Thirdly, they do not lubricate their prey with their 
tongues before swallowing it. Fourthly, the tongue 
is not a sting, but only an organ of touch. Fifthly, 
there are no double-headed snakes ; aud, lastly, an 
endeavour has been made to point Ont means by which 
poisonous snakes oan be discriminated from harmless 
one. 
—Madras Mail. Haiiold Febcusok. 
» 
NETHERLANDS INDIA NEWS. 
(Translated for the Straits Times.) 
Though timber of oxcellent quality abounds iu tho 
forests of Netherlands India, the sleepers and other 
woodon materials required for the Government railway 
now under construction ou the west coast of Sumatra, 
havo to be imported from the United States. TheSou- 
rabaya t'ouranl ascribes this dependence on n foreign 
country, to the fact that no systematic efforts have ever 
been made to open tip the forest resources of Nether- 
