194 
HUDLESTON: GEOLOGY OF PALESTINE. 
newer beds. Hitherto we have met with few traces of fossils, but 
when we reach an horizon which is represented in N.W. Europe by 
the zone of Pecten asper^ Pygaster lampas, Scaphites equalis, A mmo7iites 
7iavicular{s, and Exogyra columba, there is a great change. This 
horizon is Cenomanian, and partly corresponds with our Upper 
Greensand, and it forms the base of the Cretaceous limestones over 
an immense track of country, extending" from S.E. Arabia, and 
probabl}^ even further on the east, to Algeria on the west ; so that 
Palestine forms but a fragment of this extensive area. The deposits 
of this old sea went on accumulating long after the period when 
chalk had ceased to be deposited in our own islands, and plainly 
continued even where Nummulites had become numerous, so that 
tliere is no physical break in this great calcareous system. An im- 
portant change took place in middle Tertiary times, the Cretaceo- 
nummulitic sediments had become rock, and were subjected to a 
series of earth movements, such as those Avhich formed the chains 
of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, where this group of beds are folded 
in undulations which have a general N.N.E. strike. At the same 
time, the Cretaceous limestones of Palestine were uplifted in the 
great anticlinal fold, of which Fig. 7 is a cross section. But the 
complications here are slight compared with those of the northern 
ranges. It was at this period that the main physical features of the 
country were written upon it, though the agents of denudation have 
been carving minor features ever siuce. We may possibly regard the 
period of the uplift as Miocene. No marine fossils have ever been 
deposited since in the area coloured blue on the map, but there are 
immense deposits of flint conglomerate, gravel and superficial 
rubbish, which have been accumulating for an immense period of 
time. 
The Cretaceous geology of the Lebanon has been the subject 
of much study, and of several important memoirs. The first is the 
memoir by Botta, to which I have already alluded, as the earliest 
geological attempt made in the east ; the latest work is the second 
part of Aus clem Orient by Dr. Fraas, published four years ago. 
The Lebanon sandstone is credited with the Trigonias already 
mentioned. Above this comes the Gasteropod zone towards the base 
