82 
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY. 
§ 3.— DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THE EXTERIOR PARTS OF BIRDS. 
a. Of the Feathers, or Plumage. * 
Feathers are possessed only by birds, and all birds possess them. Feathers are modified 
scales; like scales, hair, horns, plates, sheaths, etc., they are outgrowths of the integument, or 
skin covering the body, and therefore belong to the class of epidermic (Gr. 67rt, epij upon; 
Upfxa, derma, skin), ov exoskeletal (Gr. e|, ex, out; o-KeXeroV, skeleton, dried; in the sense of 
outer skeleton ") structures. The horay coverings of the beak and feet are of the same class, 
but very differently developed. Besides being the most highly developed or complexly special- 
ized, wonderfully beautiful and perfect kind of tegumentary outgrowth ; besides fulfilling in a 
singular manner the design of covering and protecting the body ; — feathers have their particular 
locomotory office : that of accomplishing the act of flying in a manner peculiar to birds. For 
all vertebrates, excepting birds, that progress through the air — the flying fish (Exocoetus) with 
its enlarged pectoral fins ; the flying reptile (Draco or Pterodactyl) with its skinny parachute ; 
the flying mammal (bat) with its great webbed fingers — accomplish aerial locomotion by means 
of tegumentary expansions. Birds alone fly with tegumentary outgroicths, or appendages. All 
a bird's feathers, of whatever kind, collectively constitute its ptilosis (Gr. nrlXov, ptilon, a 
feather) or plumage (Lat. pluma, a plume or feather). 
Development of Feathers. — In a manner analogous to that of hair, a feather grows in 
a little pit or pouch formed by inversion of the dermal or true-skin layer of the integument, 
being formed in a closed follicle or shut sac consisting of an inner and outer coat separated by 
a layer of fine granular substance. The outer layer or " outer follicle " is composed of several 
thin strata of nucleated epithelial cells (cuticle cells) ; the inner is thicker, spongy, and filled 
with gelatinous fluid ; a little artery and vein furnish the blood circulation, very active during 
the formation of feathers. The inner is the true matrix or mould upon which the feather is 
formed, evolving from the blood-supply the gelatinous material, and resolving this into cell- 
nuclei; the granular layer is the formative material which becomes the feather. The oilter 
grows a little beyond the cutaneous sac that holds it, and opens at the end; from this orifice 
the future feather protrudes, sprouting as a little five-rayed pencil point. The process is thus 
graphically illustrated by Huxley: ''The integument of birds is always provided with horny 
appendages, which result from the conversion into horn of the cells of the outer layer of the 
epidermis. But the majority of these appendages, which are termed 'feathers,' do not take the 
form of mere plates developed upon the surface of the skin, but are evolved within sacs from 
the surfaces of conical papillae of the dermis. The external surface of the dermal papilla^ 
whence a feather is to be developed, is provided upon its dorsal [upper] surfi\ce with a median 
groove, which becomes shallower towards the apex of the papilla. From this median groove 
lateral furrows proceed at an open angle, and passing round upon the under surface of the 
papilla, become shallower, until, in the middle line, opposite the dorsal median groove, they 
become obsolete. Minor grooves run at right angles to the lateral furrows. Hence the surface 
of the papilla has the character of a kind of mould, and if it were repeatedly dipped in such a 
substance as a solution of gelatine, and withdrawn to cool until its whole surface was covered 
with an even coat of that substance, it is clear that the gelatinous coat would be thickest at 
the basal or anterior end of the median groove, at the median ends of the lateral furrows, 
and at those ends of the minor grooves which open into them ; while it would be very thin 
at the apices of the median and lateral grooves, and between the ends of the minor grooves. 
If, therefore, the hollow cone of gelatine, removed from its mould, were stretched from within ; 
or if its thinnest parts became weak by drying ; it would tend to give way, along the inferior 
median line, opposite the rod-like cast of the dorsal median groove and between the ends of 
