Aug. 1, 1000. 
THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. 
isi- 
FKUIT CULTURE IN (QUEENSLAND. 
By Albert H. Benson. 
THE COMPOSITION AND APPLICATION 
OF MANURES. 
In the previous part of this article 1 have en- 
deavoured to show the neoedsity for manuring, hov? 
plants feed, and what foods are required by them. 
I have endeavoured to show that plants reqaire 
various foods in order to pvoiluce payable returns, 
and tha» the fertility of a soil is dependent on its 
containing these plant-foods in an available form. 
I now come to the import question of the compo- 
sition of the various manures, and the methods of 
applying them in order to obtain the best results 
from' any particular fruit or farm crop to which they 
are applied. 
The old definition of the term "manure" was a 
very comprehensive one, as it practically included 
every material the application of which to the soil 
would more or less increase its productiveness. 
Thia has, however, been considered too vague, and 
the term " manure " is now commonly understood to 
refer to farm manure, or, as it is commonly called, 
farmyard manure, stable manure, dntg or muck which 
consists of the solid and liquid excrements of the 
various farm stock, mixed with more or less straw 
or other absorbent matter, or to any other refuse 
matter, mulch, compost heap, &c., obtainable on the 
farm. All other manures are classed as commercial 
fertilisers, as in the majority of cases they are not 
Eroduced by the farmer, but have to be purchased 
y him. 
Farm Manure. 
As already stated, this manure is composed of the 
Bolid and liquid excrements of all kinds of farm stock, 
mixed with a greater or smaller propo rtion of absorben 
matter. Such absorbent matter consists of i-traw, dried 
grass or weed>^, ferns, cornstalks, &c., or often, in 
the case of animals kept in towns, of sawdust ashes, 
road scrapings, &c. It is a general or complete manure — 
that is to say, it contains all the essential elements 
of plant food in a more less available form, though 
not always in the most desirable proportions for all 
plants. Farm manure is greatly neglected in this 
colony, and even where conserved, it is usually so 
badly handleii that the greater portion of its manurial 
value is either leached out or burnt out before it is 
applied to the land. 
The composition of farm manure varies considerably 
and depends largely on the kind and condition of 
stock producing it, the food they are getting, and 
the care given to the manure when produced. 
Thus the excreta of young animals is alawys in- 
ferior to that of adults, as they extract more from 
their food. The excreta of cows and pregnant an- 
imals is also inferior in that they abstract more 
from their food to produce the milk or foetus re- 
spectively. The quality of the food always influences 
the value of the excreta ; thus when stock are fed 
on foods rich in albuminous matter such as cow 
peas, beans, cotton-seed, ^c, the excreta is rich in 
nitrogen. The excreta from well-fed animals is also 
superior to that of ill-fed animals or those in which 
the food ration is badly proportioned. The kind and 
amount of the absorbent material used also influence 
the value of the manure; so does the treatment that 
it received before it is applied to the land. If thrown 
ont in the open, and the sun, wind, and rain have 
free access to it, from one-half to two-thirds of its 
mannrial value is rapidly extracted from it, but if 
kept covered and looked after the loss is only slight. 
It will thus be seen that it is an exceedingly 
diflaoult matter to determine the value of farm man- 
ure produced in this colony, especially as there is 
no analytical data to go on, and the values given by 
Snglish, German, and American authorities are of 
little if any guide here, as the conditions under which 
the manure is produced are totally distinct. How- 
ever, in the case of well-fed cows, pigs or horses the 
Bliinnre, if well cared for ahoiilct be yfotih at least 
17 
5s, to 6s. per ton according to the Sydney standard 
of manurial values, though the best American autho- 
rities consider that lOs. is a fair average for weel- 
rr.ade mixed farm manure. Besides its purely manu- 
rial value, farm manure has several valuable piopar- 
ties, and it is to this that ft is owes its especial 
value in this colony. 
Farm manure contains a large proportion of organic 
matter which, when added to the soil, tenJs to improve 
its physical condition, making it easier to work and 
more friable. It also tends to increase the powder 
or the soil to absorb and retain mosture — a most 
important consideration in a climate such as this 
when dry spells are more or less frequent. It also 
tends to free unavailable plant food present in the 
soil and to retain nitrogen. 
Most of our soils are deficient in organic matter and 
nitrogen ; hence anything that will tend to improve 
them in this respect is of the greatest value to our 
cultivators. Before leaving the question of farm man- 
ure there is one other point to be considered, and 
that is the utilisation of waste farm products and 
converting same into compost heaps with or without 
the addition of lime or commercial fertilisers. As 
a rule, these waste products are burnt or otherwise 
destroyed, and, in the case of orchards especially, 
their loss is a very serious one. All weeds, corn stalks, 
pumkin, vines, banana stalks, leaves, bush scrapings, 
and all so-called rubbish, which is usually burnt, 
should be gathered and placed into a heap together 
with the cleanings out of any ditches, drains, or 
road sides. The heap should be carefully built, and 
have snflicient soil mixed with it to keep it firm 
and cause it to rot properly, and should be covered 
by sheets of bark or iron, or by 6 inches or more 
of soil, to keep off heavy rains when once well 
wetted through. When partially rotten it should be 
turned over, and, if desirable, lime can be added, but 
lime will free the nitrogen present, and if there is 
not snflicient soil to absorb it as soon as it is freed 
it will be lost. If desired, phosphatic or potash ferti- 
lisers can also be added to the heap when turning 
and this will greatly increase its manurial value. 
Such a compost heap shoud be made on every orange- 
orchard, especially those that have been in 
bearing for some years, as it will be found to be the 
best and cheapest way of keeping up the fertility 
of the soil. The old orange-growers of Cumberland 
County, New South Wales, always considered a good 
top dressing of bush rakings and soil — which was 
practically a compost — the best possible application 
to the soil, and they often consider that the de- 
terioration of many orchards is due to their inabi- 
lity of recent years to obtain the requisite amount 
of bush scraping needed for the top dressing of 
their trees. 
There are other manurial agents about the farm 
that are often neglected, such as the fowl manure 
and nightsoil, and both of these can either be mixed 
with the manure or compost heaps with beneficial 
results. 
Farm manure, including compost heaps, can be 
applied to fruit trees either in the form of a mulch, 
or it may be spread over the ground and lightly 
ploughed or forked in. In the case of farm manure 
to be used as a mulch, the sooner it is used after 
it is made the better, as there is little if any lo|53 
once it is spread over the surface of the land. The 
disadvantage of fresh manure is that is apt to pro- 
duce an enormous crop of weeds, whereas, when pro- 
perly made, the fermentation it has undergone has 
been sufficient to destroy all weed seeds contained 
to it. In the case of farm crops it is usually best 
applied by being spread broadcast over the land 
and then ploughed in, or if desired it may be placed 
in drills, and the plants, such as cabbages, potatoes, 
&c., planted on top of it ; for this purpose, how- 
ever, it is advisable that it be well rotted, as if too 
fresh it is apt to keep the soil too loose, especially 
if it is of a sandy nature, and thus cause the plane 
to dry out should a dry spell ensue. In heavy 
clajf sQils that are cleSojeatj ia orgaaic iHivttS'C i\ 
