368 
Sup2jleinent to the " Tropical AgricaUurid." 
[Nov. 1, 1900. 
and concentrat.etl. The extract after being used 
for boiling repeatedly becomes deep red-brown 
and thick. It is then emptied into another 
broad-mouthed vessel which is placed under full 
exposure to the sun. The mass by evaporation 
thickens and areca catechu or kossa is the 
product. The nuts after boiling are dried in 
the sun and sorted into three kinds, chikni, 
betta, and gotu. Chikni. — These are unripe 
fruits got mostly from the upper unripe bunches 
of the tree. They become flat when boiled, and 
when cut are light coloured and agreeabl}' 
flavoured. They sell by retail at a higli price, 
but by the growers are uuually mixed with 
other sorts to ensure a satisfactory sale of the 
produce. These nuts after exposure to the sun 
are again soaked in the red extract, a basket- 
ful bsiug immersed at a time. They are again 
exposed daily to the sun for four or five days, 
but are gathered up at night, otherwise they 
get dark coloured. The nuts are exposed to the 
sun in cane matting spread on a mandap. Some- 
times bamboos or other means of support are 
placed over the inner court of the household, 
and the matting spread over this framework. 
The nuts when dry are ready for market and 
should be shining and bright-red brown in 
colour. 
Betta. — These are rije nuts. They are dried 
after the first boiling and then hand-rubbed 
with fairly thick extracts to which 3 or 4 per 
cent of lime has been added. This tends to 
deeper the colour. The process may have to 
be repeated two or three times. The colour 
becomes fixed by drying in the sun after hand- 
rubbing. When ready for market they are 
somewhat lighter coloured than C?iikni and. not 
so glossy or shining. They are rounder and larger. 
Gotu. — These are fully ripe or overripe nuts. 
They are usually fuirly well coloured by the 
first boiling and after exposure to the sun for 
several days are ready for market. The colour 
may be deepened and improved by the same 
means as described for betta, The three varieties 
are usually packed together by the cultivators in 
sacks. Sirisi and Kumta are the chief markets. 
Ordinary prices for three varieties are : — 
Chikni R6 to K7 per maund of 48 seers of 20 tolas 
Betta 3 to 4 ditto ditto 
Gotu 2 to 2^ ditto ditto 
Betel palms are not much affected with disease. 
A borer does considerable damage- The borers 
cut a tunnel from the root upwards and in time 
reach to the growing top. The damage there 
done is so considerable that the top withers 
and when wind blows breaks ofi and falls to 
the ground. 
AUTIFICIAL CHANGES OP PHYSICAL PRO- 
PERTIES OF SOIL. 
{Concluded.) 
We thus see that not only the structure of 
the soil but also its temjjerature may be affected 
by mechanical means. Change from separate 
grain skructnre to crumbly structure generally 
ioiproves, though to a email degree, the heat 
conditions of a soil, principallj' by reducing 
evaporation. Rolling the soil is more effective 
because it increases the conductivity of the soil 
for heat, and therefore, under normal conditions 
of weather, raises the temperature of the soil. 
Loosening the surface of the soil by harrowing, 
hoeing, &c., results, on the contrary, in a 
decrease in the temperature of the soil. By 
covering the ground with dead matter (mulching) 
the temperature of the soil is increased or decreased 
according to the behaviour of the covering toward 
heat. If, for example, a thin layor of black 
material (coal dust, black clay slate, &c.,) is spread 
over the soil, the temperature of the soil ri«es to a 
considerable degree, at:d crops on soils so treated 
are accordingly benefitted. Although this process, 
for evident reasons, is not applicable to cultivation 
on a large scale, still with delicate plants, 
especially in horticulture, it may be used to 
advantage. Spreading a layer of sand or gravel 
over humus soils causes a rise in the temperature 
of the latter, and wholly or partifiUy prevents 
the frequent night frosts which occur during 
spring in such soils. Mulching with dead organic 
matter (stable manure, straw, &c.,) may be used 
to lower the temperature of the soil during the 
warm portii n of the year. By the same means, 
the iiifluenc3 of the temperature of the air is 
diminished, and the soil protected from all ex- 
cessive changes in temperature. This is due to 
the fact that all the materials mentioned are poor 
conductors of heat. Allowing stable manure to 
remain spread out during the warm months on the 
surface of the soil for some time before it is 
worked into the soil may unfavourably affect the 
moisture of the soil. In the colder portion of the 
year, however, it may be beneficial on account of 
its influence in raising the teinperature of the soil. 
Under such conditions, however, the covering of 
manure may exercise a harmful influence on fine- 
grained clay soils rich in humus by preventing 
the loosening effect of frosts, which is so important 
for such soils. Beneficial results may be obtained 
by thinly spreading a mulch in the late fall over 
fields occupied by perennial forage plants, thus 
protecting the plants against low, and especially 
changeable winter temperatures. As, however, 
such a covering retards warming of the soil, the 
nndecomposed remains of the mulch should be 
removed as soon as the temperature begins to rise 
in the spring. Keeping in mind the fact that 
covering the soil in this manner retards warming in 
spring, this practice may also be utilised to retard 
the blossoming of fruit trees, thus diminishing or 
preventing damage from late frost. If the ground 
surrounding the trunk is covered in spring with a 
headj' layer of straw the temperature is kept low, 
and in consequence the amount of water received 
through the roots i* sm iU, so that the development 
of the leaves and especially the blossom is 
retarded for several weeks, or u/)til the organs of 
reproduction are then in lirile danger of freezing. 
Finally, the practice of keeping fields fallow (i.e., 
without crops) is a means of increasing the tem- 
perature of the soil during the warm season. When 
the rise in the temperature is accompained by 
an increase in the water content of the soil 
decomposition of organic materials is promoted^ 
