Oct. 1, 1901.) 
Si^plment to the "Tropical Agriculturist." 
287 
mite at the roots of the quills causes birds to 
pliiek their feathers. 
There are three distinct groups of insect atid 
mite pests upon fowls, namely : — (1) Fleas ( Pulici- 
dce); (2) Lice {Mallophaga) ; and (3) Mites 
(Acarina). The two former only are true insects, 
having the six insect legs ; the Acarina have lour 
pairs of legs and are quite distinct from true 
insects. The fleas and soone of the worse miles 
are armed veith a piercing and sucking 
mouth, the bird lice having biting mouths 
and thus differ from ticks found on animals. 
The pests with piercing mouths weaken the 
birds not only by causing irritation but by 
actual robbing of blood. The biting lice, on the 
other hand, only cause severe irritation, which 
keeps the birds iu constant unrest. Most birds have 
distinct parasites upon them, each species of louse 
only flourishing on a particular species of bird ; 
duck lice, for instance, cannot live permanently 
upon fowls, and vice versd. 
Different species also seem partial to particular 
parts of the bird's body. The favourite posiiions 
seem to be the head, neck, rump, and under the 
vyings. Some of these parasites live permanently 
on their hosts (lice and some mites), whilst others 
(fleas and some mites) go to and fro. Some Acari 
live entirely upon, and even under, the skin, deep 
amongst the feathers and at their roots; some 
lice live like " ticks" with their heads against the 
skin and their bodies erect ; whilst a single genus 
(Lipeurus) lives between the barbs of the feathers. 
All these parasites are encouraged by dirt. 
Fleas {Pulicidce). — The fleas, which are true 
insects, belong to the order of flies (Diptera). 
They feed upon the blood. One species only 
lives upon the fowl, namely, the bird-flea (Pul&x: 
gallinm), which attacks al.so most other birds. 
The hen-flea, as it is generally called, is abundant 
is dirty fowl runs, and especially in the nests 
were straw is used. The adult flea is dark in 
cok ur, and, as in all fleas, is devoid of wings. 
The fleas are provided with very sharp piercing 
mouths. They are what are termed '' partial 
parasites" — parasites that only go to their hosts 
to feed. The fleas are not noticed on the birds 
because they generally attack them at night ; 
then, however, they do much harm, cautdng con- 
stant irritation and loss of blood, and depriving 
them of rest. 
Life-hif^tory of the Hen-Jlea. — The female flea 
lays her eggs (nits) chiefly in the nests amongst 
dust and dirt and iu the crevices of the walls and 
floor. These nits give rise to pearly white mag- 
gots, with brown horny heads, which can often 
he found in the bottom of the nests among the 
dust. These larvae are mature in two or three 
weeks, when they reach about i of an inch in 
length. In warm weather they may be full fed 
in even ten days. They then spin a pale cocoon 
amongst the dirt, in which they pupate. The 
pupa is at first pale brown, then dark chesnut 
brown. In this condition the flea remains ten or 
fewenty-one days, when the pupa hatches into the 
adult. They breed all the year round, but ehiefly 
in warm weather. It is well to remember that, 
whenever there are dark and dirty hen roosts, there 
are sure to be numbers of Pul«x gailime. 
(%) Lice ( Mallophagn. )— 'She. bird lice belong ^.o 
the group Mallophaga, quite distinct from human 
lice ( Pediculidae), and from mammalian lice 
( Haeniotopinus, Sic. j Hhese Mallopkaga hii\e not 
a piercing mouth ; their moutii is simply used for 
biting. They subsist upon the productions of the 
skin and fragments of feathers. They cause violent 
itching, and bite sharply, and must produce con- 
siderable pain when in large numbers, as is too 
often the case. The feathers, especially the 
saddle trackle, generally sliow notched edoes 
with lice infestation. Eight distinct i^pecies of 
lice attack fowls. The presence of these lice 
(Phthiriases) is generally ascribed to two uniform 
or insufficient nutrition, or else to damp, dark 
and dirty runs, especially those badly ventilated* 
Food, either when uniform or insufficient has no 
effect upon their presence. Dark, damp places, 
however, when dirty, are sure to harbour all 
these pests, especially when badly ventilated. It 
is also said that breed affects their presence but 
observations tends to show that all breeds are 
more or less subject to infestation- In every 
case they set up severe irritation and inflammation 
of the skin, which often leads to stunted growth 
and even death ! Lice and other parasites 
flourish on unhealthy birds. 
Life-history of Lice.— All the lice breed 
fairly rapidly. The eggs or nits are laid 
upon the down feathers as a rule ; they 
are often beautifully sculptured objects, oval in 
form. In about six to ten days they hatch into 
small, pale, active lice, which at once commence 
to irritate the birds. The adults are occasionally 
found in the nests. Some species are found 
copulating in the nests, others always on the 
birds. They live a considerable time. Menopon 
pallidum has been kept active for months upon 
fre h feathers, the quick epidermis being especially 
eaten. Before reaching the full-grown state as 
many as ten to twelve months apparently tako 
place, there being little difference in each stage 
except the gradual darkenuig of the markings. 
(3.) Mites {Acari, Acariases, Dermanyssus). — 
Mites are very minute creatures, having four pairs 
of legs. Some are partial parasites, lil-ing on the 
birds at night, as Dermanyssus avimn, the com- 
mon fowl mite ; others are permanent parasites 
as Sarcoytes, living at the base of the feathers, and 
popularly called "depluming scabbies," Others 
again, live under the skin, forming scabby 
growths, such as are seen on fowls' legs (Sarcoptas 
mutans). These are armed with a prickiuw moutli 
witii which they torment the birds, especially 
at night, causing loss of condition, hindering 
setting, and creating loss in other ways, 
The most injurious form is the red or common 
fowl mite. 
The Fowl Mite {Dermanyssus ai>ium).~Thm 
very minute creature is yellowish white to dark 
red in colour, according to the amount of blood it 
contains, drawn from the birds. They are found 
in abundance in pigeon-houses and poultry-roosts. 
Both sexes are armed with a sharp rostrum ; the 
female is most blood-thirsty. They feed upon 
the birds only at night, and hide away in cracks 
and crevices iu the nests, perches, floors, walls, 
and ceilings during the day. Numerous eoloni«'» 
