of having possessed spears suitable for 
throwing or of any spear throwers. 
How then did they kill mammoths, 
rhinos, and bisons? 
The answer requires a brief depar- 
ture into combat theory. There are 
two principal means of avoiding dam- 
age from an animal’s weapon if one 
cannot parry it. One either stays so 
far back from the beast that it cannot 
reach you or one gets in so close that 
it cannot use its weapons effectively. 
To escape being hurt by horses that 
are lined up in a stable, for example, 
you should either stay so far back 
that the occasional kicker cannot hit 
you or else walk along almost brushing 
tails with your shoulder so that a 
kicker cannot hurt you. The first 
means of defense was probably used 
by our Paleolithic ancestors when con- 
fronting the dangerous game that they 
killed by throwing spears. The second, 
I suggest, was used by Neanderthal. 
It is the key to a logical explanation 
of Neanderthal’s morphology, hunting 
tools, hunting economics, and ultimate 
demise. I have termed it “close-quar- 
ter confrontation hunting.” 
The advantage offered by close- 
quarter confrontation hunting with 
primitive weapons was that it would 
require few hunters; probably two 
would do. Extraordinary agility, cou- 
pled with high speed and precision 
of movement, would have been re- 
quired, however, for one of the hunters 
to avoid the weapons of an attacking 
animal. First, he had to evade the 
attacks, then quickly move in, attach 
himself to the body of the prey, and 
have the strength to hold on while 
an enraged beast tried to fling, shake, 
and buck him off. With one hunter 
attached to the prey and holding its 
attention, the other was free to kill 
the distracted beast. The hunter 
should not have been armed with a 
spear featuring a narrow stone blade, 
which was a must on throwing spears 
in order to achieve penetration. Such 
a blade could shatter on a bone, dis- 
arming the hunter. A spear might also 
completely penetrate the prey and pos- 
sibly skewer the hunter holding on 
to the animal on the other side. Also, 
the wound channel caused by a throw- 
ing spear is thin, and so not conducive 
to quick killing. What was required 
was the largest possible blade that 
could be thrust into the prey. Such 
a blade inflicted a massive wound 
channel and could strike bones without 
fracturing. Until the prey weakened 
and fell, the hunter clinging to it 
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