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the old loess steppes left largely by 
glaciers in Europe, Asia, and America. 
Although people with Neanderthal 
features existed before the WUrm Gla- 
cial Stage, the last major glaciation 
of Europe, the classic Neanderthal 
arose with the first advance of the 
Wlirm ice sheets, lasted some 35,000 
years, roughly from 70,000 to 35,000 
b.c., and vanished abruptly with the 
first brief warm phase (interstadial) 
separating the first from the second 
major advance of the ice. The first 
human to successfully colonize cold 
landscapes, Neanderthal was a super- 
carnivore, killing not only some of the 
largest and most dangerous ungulates, 
such as steppe wisent, mammoth, 
woolly rhino, and horses, but also car- 
nivores, such as wolves and bears. 
In cold climates with long winters, 
living off plant food or off small 
mammals and birds is not a viable 
proposition for humans. Not only are 
edible plants relatively rare in cold- 
climate floras, but potential foods such 
as berries drop off in fall or they freeze 
and thaw and disintegrate. Tubers 
freeze in the soil and are impossible 
to excavate or even to find beneath 
the snow blanket. Most small mam- 
mals are hibernating or at least spend- 
ing much of their time below the snow, 
and most birds have moved to warm 
climates. Moreover, to sustain a family 
on meat, large amounts are needed, 
and it becomes uneconomical to spend 
time hunting for small-bodied game. 
In cold climates, particularly in win- 
ter, it is sound economic practice to 
hunt large-bodied mammals only. 
(Large herbivorous mammals survive 
in winter by feeding on dried sedges, 
grasses, reeds, herbs, twigs, dwarf 
shrubs, and leaves from trees growing 
in protected pockets.) 
Neanderthal’s kill patterns, slanted 
heavily to large-bodied grazers and 
carnivores and almost devoid of small 
game, are beyond comparison with any 
modern hunting culture. Nor do Ne- 
anderthal tools match those of any 
culture of today, a strong hint that 
what these early people did will not 
be found in contemporary societies. 
This is also implied by evidence that 
Neanderthal was far more powerful 
than modern humans. Whereas arche- 
ologists can experimentally duplicate 
the wear pattern on tools such as were 
used by people from the Upper Pa- 
leolithic (the people that followed 
Neanderthal and are our ancestors), 
the wear patterns on Neanderthal’s 
tools cannot be duplicated. We do not 
have the strength to do it. Neander- 
thal’s skeleton reflects a supremely 
powerful musculature. The joints were 
massive, even in children, implying 
an ability for rapid starts and stops. 
The hands were not only very large 
but could also be spread wider than 
ours. The terminal phalanges were 
large, and the musculature closing the 
fingers was powerful. The shoulder 
girdle, besides being massive, was ana- 
tomically peculiar in that it was almost 
simian, implying brachiation (swing- 
ing through trees), which is totally 
incongruous with the open landscapes 
of the glacial age. Whatever Nean- 
derthal did for a living, there were 
times when enormous physical 
strength and violent acceleration and 
deceleration of the body were essen- 
tial. As Neanderthals were carnivores 
capable of killing very large, powerful, 
and agile mammals, we may look here 
for a clue to their distinctive anatomy. 
How could one safely capture large, 
well-armed, aggressive, agile, big 
game? On an open steppe, approach- 
ing the game by stalking was hopeless, 
particularly if snow crunched under- 
foot. Even if a hunter somehow got 
close to the animal, how could he kill 
it quickly enough to prevent being 
gored and trampled by a wounded 
beast? Stalking by a single hunter was 
out of the question. Large, dangerous 
mammals are not likely to run from 
carnivores; on the contrary, they are 
likely to close the distance and attack, 
and herein lies their vulnerability. If 
a beast such as a mammoth could 
be provoked, it would come to the 
hunter. The task was to kill it without 
sustaining injury to oneself. A lone 
hunter could not succeed because the 
attacking animal gave him its undi- 
vided attention, and in facing the 
hunter it exposed virtually no vulner- 
able part of its body. The weapons 
of mammoths, bisons, giant deer, and 
rhinos were located frontally. 
A small group of hunters would 
have been required to split the at- 
tention of the attacking animal, dis- 
tracting it. Next, in this cooperative 
venture, one or more of the hunters 
could quickly maneuver and attack 
the sides of the animal where vital 
internal organs were more accessible 
to inflicted damage. The next logical 
step would seem to be to throw sharp, 
pointed spears into the prey, just as 
was done by our ancestors in the Up- 
per Paleolithic. Their hafted points 
and spear throwers attest to that. How- 
ever, Neanderthals left no evidence 
30 
