cets and stilts as decidedly second-class 
table birds, but did find them palatable, 
as do hawks, owls, and foxes. Essen- 
tially the only protection avocets and 
stilts have is that of being alert and flee- 
ing from predators. Living in flocks re- 
duces the chance of being ambushed 
because there are more pairs of watch- 
ful eyes. In fact, fleeing from predators 
works reasonably well for the birds dur- 
ing most of the year. But it cannot 
work, of course, for a chick that is un- 
able to fly. Although parent stilts and 
avocets can protect themselves by flee- 
ing, their young are usually best pro- 
tected if the adults remain to interact 
with the predator. Interactions with 
predators necessarily carry an element 
of danger — and there hangs a tale. 
Worldwide, there are up to six stilt 
species and four avocet species (opin- 
ions vary on how many should be rec- 
ognized); all are close counterparts of 
the North American duo. With avocet 
and stilt representatives on every conti- 
nent except Antarctica, this chiefly 
tropical- and temperate-latitude family 
is obviously successful in its bipartite 
wading-bird niche. Although none are 
found in polar regions, one of the avo- 
cets lives in the Andes at elevations 
above 9,500 feet. 
Despite their widespread conspicu- 
ousness, stilt and avocet biology is 
poorly known. To date there have been 
only two scientific investigations of 
American avocets and one of black- 
necked stilts, supplemented by a few 
published accounts of brief studies and 
some recent research on an endangered 
subspecies, the Hawaiian stilt. 
With this in mind, I set out to study 
the breeding behavior and ecology of 
avocets and stilts in northern Utah. 
Working at the Bear River Migratory 
Bird Refuge and at a private duck club 
known appropriately as the Barrens, I 
observed avocets and stilts for six years, 
with two and a half of those years spent 
in intensive study. I quickly discovered 
that field conditions at the Barrens are 
suboptimal for people. Amid snow, ice, 
and bitter winds, avocets arrive in mid 
or late March, and stilts about two 
weeks later. Twice a week snowstorms 
usually cease by the end of May, when 
ameliorating temperatures bring a 
surge of mosquitoes, black flies, horse 
flies, and deer flies. Summer tempera- 
tures soar td 120°F on the shadeless salt 
flats and not only made life unpleasant 
for me and the birds but also threatened 
the lives of the embryos encased in inso- 
lated eggshells (eggshells that are ex- 
posed to the sun). 
Robert Lee. Photo Researchers 
44 
I was particularly intrigued by the 
behavior avocets and stilts use to pro- 
tect their eggs and chicks against pred- 
ators. Eggs are usually laid in the open 
or in the short desert salt grass found 
in and around marshes (stilts have a 
greater tendency to nest in the grass 
than avocets do). Sometimes the nests 
are conspicuous mounds elevated 
above floodwaters. Regardless of nest- 
site details, the situation seems poten- 
tially hazardous. With a large, brightly 
plumaged bird sitting on three or four 
tasty eggs in an exceptionally open en- 
vironment, a nest predator has only to 
spot the conspicuous adult, chase it 
away, and consume the eggs. So avocets 
and stilts, necks erect like periscopes, 
watch carefully as they incubate, and at 
the first sign of a potential predator, 
they slip away, making it difficult for a 
predator to find the cryptic eggs. But 
during adverse weather — snow, rain, or 
sizzling heat — eggs can be killed by 
fairly brief exposure. And during mod- 
erate weather the embryos will not de- 
velop at normal rates unless heat is 
applied by their parents. Inattentive- 
ness, then, could result in a prolonged 
incubation period, and thereby extend 
the period of susceptibility to pred- 
ators. Thus avocets and stilts can ill af- 
ford to be away from their nests for 
long periods while predators slowly 
search the marsh. Lacking both offen- 
sive and defensive potency, avocets and 
stilts have nevertheless evolved re- 
markable forms of behavior that cause 
predators to move on quickly or at least 
look in the wrong places for nests and 
chicks. 
In terms of direct actions that tend to 
