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KEEPING WARM 
fuel. And the custom of preparing and 
taking meals in common — a major 
source of cohesion and exchange in hu- 
man groups — may date from when food 
could be cooked. Assuming that the 
burned bones found discarded in prehis- 
toric dwelling sites are evidence of meat 
cooking, then cooking goes back to 
Homo erectus of Lower Paleolithic 
times. (One can also argue that the 
bones were only used as fuel. For exam- 
ple, in the absence of abundant wood, 
the mammoth hunters of central Europe 
and the Russian plain used mammoth 
bones as a primary fuel.) 
An early example of how effectively 
fire could be used for heating can be 
found at the Lower Paleolithic site of le 
Lazaret, at Nice, where a hut was built 
about 1 50,000 years ago in a small cave 
overlooking the sea. The hut was made 
by leaning wood poles against the cave 
wall and covering them with animal 
skins, which were anchored to the 
ground by stones. Inside were two small 
hearths, which (if the hut was wind- 
proof) could have maintained the 500- 
cubic-foot interior at a temperature of 
60° to 70°F while it was 25° outside. In 
general, a Paleolithic dwelling several 
meters in diameter had just one hearth. 
In the cold Upper Paleolithic, prehis- 
toric peoples apparently developed a 
technique for preserving as much heat 
as possible from the fireplace. Several 
sites of this period (notably in France, 
where Paleolithic hearths have recently 
been examined in detail) have yielded 
hearths that were either filled or cov- 
ered with a dense layer of burned peb- 
bles or angular stones (sandstone, gran- 
ite, limestone, and so on). In some 
instances, it has been possible to prove 
that the stones were laid on burning 
embers and not removed afterward. A 
likely explanation is that the stones were 
meant to accumulate heat when the fire 
was at its maximum and to give it back 
slowly during the night or conserve it 
during a temporary absence. At the 
same time, the system would have al- 
lowed for the economizing of fuel, which 
may already have been a preoccupation 
in Paleolithic times. Each time such a 
hearth was used, of course, it had to be 
cleared of the stones, which could be 
reused until they became too frag- 
mented by the heat. This interpretation 
is plausible and has been ethnographi- 
cally documented, but there is another 
possible explanation. The idea may have 
been to heat the stones and then use 
them for boiling, roasting, or drying 
food; for drying and heating flint before 
knapping it; for heating antlers before 
working them; or for other purposes. 
Indeed, the use of fire as a tool is 
easier to document than its use for 
warmth because the remains of materi- 
als worked in fire are modified in ways 
that we can still observe. For example, 
in some rare Lower and Middle Paleo- 
lithic sites, exceptional conditions have 
preserved wooden tools that were 
pointed and hardened in fire, such as the 
digging sticks at Kalambo Falls in East 
Africa and the spear of Lehringen in 
Germany. By the Upper Paleolithic, fire 
was used to fracture or treat flint, ant- 
lers, ivory, and bone and to reduce and 
oxidize natural ochers for painting. A 
first attempt at ceramics appears in 
fired figurines found in central Europe. 
And fire probably served as a tool in 
such activities as forest clearing, tree 
felling, and game hunting. 
Fire’s many technical applications, as 
well as its importance for cooking and 
lighting, make it hard to determine how 
important the Paleolithic fireplace was 
for heating. But what should be empha- 
sized is that fire was neither the first nor 
the only way that humans discovered to 
fight cold. 
A wind- and moisture-proof dwell- 
ing — a hut or tent — would have been 
one of the most efficient defenses 
against cold. The covers of tents or huts, 
which were probably made of organic 
materials, are not preserved, but the 
remains of stones, rings of pebbles, or 
folds of earth that were used to fix a 
cover to the ground can often be found. 
There were Paleolithic huts made of 
reindeer bones and antlers or mammoth 
bones and tusks that had an intricate 
dome structure to support and fix a 
heavy, weatherproof cover. Experi- 
ments have shown that a cover sewn 
together from reindeer skins (reindeer 
were widely hunted in Upper Paleolithic 
Europe) would have provided excellent 
protection against cold, rain, and snow. 
The best protection would have been 
individual clothing, which conserves 
body heat. Unfortunately, nothing is 
known about clothing during the Lower 
Paleolithic, although fur clothes were 
probably used. Numerous bone and 
ivory needles from Upper Paleolithic 
sites indicate that clothes were being 
sewn some 17,000 years ago. Before 
that, sewing could have been done with 
bone or stone borers. To get an idea of 
the clothes themselves, we have to turn 
to figurines and burial sites. Most of the 
40 
