Andrew Tomko 
institution of compadrazgo, the relation- 
ship of co-parenthood that is established 
between parents and godparents. 
Drovers learn routes and acquire 
caseros by accompanying their fathers, 
uncles, older brothers, or other men as 
helpers. As one drover explained, 
“When one serves as a helper, you are 
introduced to people. The next year, 
when you return to the area, you have 
your clients. When you travel with your 
father, you make caseros with the sons 
of his caseros." 
Most of the veteran drovers that I met 
began their apprenticeship as helpers to 
their fathers at age six to eight. A helper 
is usually a man’s son or nephew but can 
be a daughter or niece if a male helper is 
not available. Also, young men whose 
own fathers lack llamas may volunteer 
Despite the growth of commercialism 
and motor transport , traditional llama 
caravans are still to be found in 
Andean South America. While in 
Bolivia in 1977, the author 
accompanied one such caravan from 
Pampa Aullagas { elevation more than 
12,000 feet) into the eastern chain of 
the Andes and down to a valley 
trading site. The llama drovers took 
salt obtained from the Uyuni salt 
flats near Pampa Aullagas to trade 
for corn and other valley products 
that cannot be grown in the high- 
altitude environment. 
to assist drovers to whom they are 
unrelated. In this way, they obtain 
maize for their parents, plus experience 
for their own eventual caravans. The 
standard compensation for such helpers 
in Pampa Aullagas in the 1970s was the 
free use of five of the employer’s llamas 
for the transport of the helper’s own 
trade goods. 
Helpers are expected to perform irk- 
some, low-prestige chores, such as fetch- 
ing water and gathering dung for fuel. 
On our 1977 expedition, Hilario served 
as helper mainly to his father, while I 
acted as Sergio’s helper. The caravan 
contained a total of fifty-five llamas, of 
which twenty-eight belonged to Grego- 
rio and his family and twenty-seven to 
Sergio. There were also three burros to 
carry utensils and provisions and to 
serve as pack animals once we reached 
our destination. Each drover was respon- 
sible for looking after his own animals 
and conducting his own trading, al- 
though on the march the animals inter- 
mingled freely, with one man walking 
behind them and one on each side of the 
caravan. 
Only male llamas are used as pack 
animals, and they are usually castrated 
because the drovers believe that this 
makes them more resistant to fatigue. 
Caravan llamas range in age from three 
to seven, with ages four to six regarded 
as the best. Whenever possible, caravan 
veterans are selected as lead animals. 
The average mature male llama can 
carry a load of about seventy-five 
pounds, with some capable of sustaining 
a hundred pounds over short distances. 
To avoid unduly fatiguing their llamas, 
most drovers limit their cargo weight to 
between fifty and sixty pounds. 
The salt we transported came in both 
solid blocks and granulated chunks. The 
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