of Edinburgh, Session 1883-84. 
969 
tbe cry for so-called ‘‘utility” in ultimate products is frequently 
nothing more than a demand for the lower forms of sesthesis in 
preference to the higher. 
§ 34. Definition of Production . — No definition of production is 
possible from the physical point of view alone, since it involves a 
knowledge of the organism to which production is adapted. Now, 
however, production is definable in general terms as the adaptation 
of the environment to human functions; and every productive action 
thus tends either towards maintenance and evolution or the reverse. 
I'his simple idea is not yet, however, sufficiently active in our 
industrial age. The functions of production are undertaken by 
industrialists, chiefs and proletaires alike, mainly with the notion 
of obtaining “ wealth ” in its very variable proportions of main- 
tenance, power over others, personal immunity from function, &c., 
a conception of the nature and aim of production upon which our 
surviving industrial anarchy mainly depends. The adaptation of the 
world to the wants of the species, which we see to be the beginning 
and end of production, is again definable in biological language as 
the substitution of human for natural selection. 
§ 35. Polymorphism and Competition. — We have already seen how, 
in the evolution of production, specialisation of function in a com- 
munity of organisms was attended by polymorphism — the resultant 
structural specialisation. This polymorphism has a most important 
bearing on the economy of the community. In a little differen- 
tiated community, competition is at its highest pitch ; in a poly- 
morphic one, it is reduced almost to zero. In a hydractinia or 
siphonophore colony, in an ant-hill or bee-hive, competition is mini- 
mised. Struggle for existence between the members has ceased, 
the only struggle is with other communities. So far, then, is com- 
petition from being the sole idea derivable by economics from 
biology, as is so commonly supposed, that in fact competition is 
ever in inverse ratio to polymorphism ; and in a given community 
polymorphism puts an end to internal, though not necessarily of 
course to intersocial, struggle. Internal competition can only be 
-intense in large communities where there is but little polymorphism. 
§ 36. Production and Reproduction. — We have seen that for the ela- 
boration of ultimate products machines and automata are necessary. 
Increase of production, therefore, involves increase of machines and 
VOL. XII. 3 u 
