WHITE PINE UNDER FOREST MANAGEMENT. 61 
of roads and trails is exceedingly useful and in many cases es- 
sential, since they serve as fire lines and at the same time afford 
easy access to any part of the area. A road only 6 feet wide, from 
which all litter and vegetation have been removed, can be made an 
effective barrier against a severe ground fire, while a single furrow 
of earth or a cleared trail will often check a surface or grass fire. 
Where the risk of fire is very great, as in extensive pine forests, or 
where valuable property is to be protected, special fire lines may have 
to be constructed. The most effective kind is a fully cleared strip, 
from which trees, underbrush, and all debris and fitter have been 
removed down to the mineral soil. Ordinarily a width of from 6 to 
15 feet is sufficient, though sometimes a greater width may be neces- 
sary. The cost of constructing a fire line for second-growth wood- 
lands ranges from $30 to $50 a mile. 
Existing roads and trails can, of course, serve as fire lines. To be 
really effective, however, they must be cleared of all underbrush and 
debris. In addition, fire fines should be established at strategic points, 
such as boundary lines and along hill crests. Especially dangerous 
points, such as along a railroad or where old slashings are next to 
young reproduction of valuable timber, should also be protected by 
special fire lines. In the Northeastern States, where the woodlands 
are in small blocks broken by many roads and trails and numerous 
houses, the presence of a forest fire is soon detected. The farmer can 
act as his own guard, and by proper care in clearing out his roads 
and disposing of his brush make his woodlot comparatively safe. 
For observing wide stretches of uninhabited woodland, forest-fire 
lookout stations on elevated points have been established in several 
of the States with good results. The watchman in charge is provided 
with a map of the surrounding country, a telescope to detect a fire, 
and a range finder to locate its position. As soon as a fire is observed 
he telephones for aid. During the dry season, from April 1 to Octo- 
ber 1, a patrol system is very essential for the protection of wide 
stretches of sparsely settled country. 
An effective fire-fighting outfit should include shovels, rakes, grub 
hoes, axes, ropes, and collapsible pails. The implements should be 
kept in a convenient place ready for immediate use. 
The various methods of fighting fires have been developed accord- 
ing to the needs of a particular locality. For checking ground fires 
which smoulder and burn stubbornly where there are large accunro- 
lations of duff, the digging of trenches with shovels or grub hoes has 
been found very effective. In sandy land, free from rocks, sand may 
be used effectively in extinguishing fire. Loose loam is also good for 
the purpose, though not as effective as sand, but heavy soil that 
forms clods is of little value. Some surface fires in dry leaf litter or 
in short grass among scattered tree growth may be beaten out with 
