52 BULLETIN 1089, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
fodder except what they pick up as they go along ; they can traverse 
boggy ground in which a horse would mire ; their feet do not have to 
be shod ; and, finally, when they are no longer required for packing 
they may be slaughtered for food. It is surprising that so little use 
has been made in Alaska of the reindeer as a pack animal. Doubtless 
the principal reason is that few animals are broken for this purpose 
and that little effort has been made to supply the demand. 
As regards the weight that a full grown reindeer may support on 
its back, the reader's attention is called to Plate XX, Figure 2, in 
which a heavy man is seen astride a reindeer. In Siberia Bertholf 
saw Tungusic reindeer commonly used as riding animals ; he says that 
some of them are capable of supporting a 200-pound man. 
PREDATORY ANIMAL ENEMIES. 
The predatory animals that attack reindeer in Alaska are chiefly 
bears, wolves, lynxes, wolverenes, and eagles. Their depredations are 
greater in the interior than on the coast, but while important they are 
not extensive. Bears are the most numerous and destructive enemy. 
Only a relatively few wolves, lynxes, and wolverenes now remain 
along the coasts of Bering Sea or the Arctic Ocean ; consequently the 
losses from predatory animals there are comparatively small, but in 
the interior they become more of a factor. Eagles are largely in the 
interior and are especially destructive to fawns. It is reported that 
in Lapland the herders must stay continuously with their reindeer 
during the night to ward off depredations by wolves, but on the 
ranges used in Alaska up to this time night herding to keep off pred- 
atory animals is rarely necessary. 
INJURIES AND DISEASES OF REINDEER. 
Eeindeer have generally been considered to be very healthy ani- 
mals, and though our observations substantiate this to a great extent, 
there are many minor ailments and parasitic diseases which are tak- 
ing their toll from the herds. No serious epizootic or contagious 
diseases have been encountered. In Europe it is said that epizootics 
ravage the herds occasionally, but in Alaska there are no records of 
any large numbers of reindeer ctying suddenly. The deaths which do 
occur come one or two at a time, and the herds have their ups and 
downs like cattle or sheep. 
In the following paragraphs the diseases will be dealt with under 
separate heads; treatment and methods of prevention are indicated 
wherever possible. It will be noticed that some stress has been laid 
on the slaughter of all animals likely to convey disease to others. 
Isolation might be equally effective in some cases, but can not be 
recommended, as there are no facilities at the reindeer camps for such 
