THE EED SPRUCE. 21 
As to the less favorable showing of balsam, this was unquestion- 
ably due in part to the smaller production of balsam seed, since 
there were fewer balsam than spruce seed trees in the particular 
locality where conditions were observed. Then, too, balsam seeds 
are heavier than those of spruce, so that they would not be carried 
so far by the wind, and balsam seedlings are also browsed by cattle 
much more than spruce. 
If this behavior of spruce and of balsam in regard to time of seed 
dispersal and germination is typical of the two species, it can be 
readily seen that even with a less production of fertile seed than 
spruce, balsam would have a considerable advantage. The fall ger- 
mination of spruce would subject the very young seedlings to a 
material reduction in numbers and vitality during the first winter as 
a result of winter-killing, while the loss to balsam from this cause 
would be comparatively insignificant. 
Spruce is at a disadvantage, too, in its early struggle for a foothold 
in mixed hardwood stands. The usual explanation for its failure to 
come in more plentifully under a mixed hardwood forest after cut- 
ting is that the abundance of hardwood leaf litter on the ground at 
the time of seed fall prevents the spruce seeds germinating thereon 
from getting their roots into mineral soil, Jpoth because of the tough 
and impenetrable texture of the birch, maple, and other hardwood 
leaves and because the loosely compact surface layer of leaves sheds 
the moisture and quickly dries out before the young spruce can get 
established. While these undoubtedly are among the contributory 
causes, observations made in Waterville, N. H., in the spring of 1911 
in connection with spruce reproduction plots under hardwoods sug- 
gest that here again the early seed dispersal habit of spruce works 
to the disadvantage of its reproduction. On several of these plots 
after the leaf litter of the previous fall was removed a considerable 
number of spruce germinates of that spring were counted. Many, 
however, were either wilted or had already succumbed to "damping- 
off ," while others were bleached almost white and the stem and leaves 
were turgid and succulent, but without vigor, doubtless from too 
humid growing conditions and lack of sufficient light. This was par- 
ticularly noticeable under moosewood and young hardwood brush 
with large coarse foliage. The absence of any one-year or two-year 
spruce on these plots was also noticeable. A marked contrast to this 
condition was found where any part of these plots happened to be 
protected from the heavy hardwood leaf fall by a group of- suppressed 
spruce or small balsams or a pile of slash. Here there would be a gen- 
erous number of spruce germinates and one and two year seedlings as 
well. In fact, reproduction appeared to be entirely satisfactory. 
Whether fall germination takes place in these circumstances or 
not, the seeds, or germinates, will be covered with a thick layer of 
