LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 47 
placed on the main line. The better layout, and one now coming 
into general use, is to locate the logging railroads on the faces of the 
slopes and eliminate chutes as much as possible. A large part of the 
yarding can thus be done directly to the main line. Spurs are 
constructed to within yarding distance of the remaining timber. 
Chutes are used only to tap inaccessible coves where the amount of 
timber will not warrant a spur. 
Although it is ordinarily good economy to construct spurs as above, 
the mileage obviously must not be increased to a point where the 
saving in yarding is more than offset by the added cost of spurs. 
For big-wheel yarding, spurs should be placed within one-quarter 
mile of all timber. For donkey yarding, with favorable conditions 
for railroad building, the maximum distance from the stump to the 
track should be from 1,400 to 1,500 feet. Where railroad construc- 
tion is more difficult, the outside distance should be 2,000 feet, with a 
usual maximum of 1,600 feet. Usually in locating spurs, the proper 
settings for the yarding engines are selected and the spur laid out to 
reach these settings. 
Switchbacks are frequently used in order to climb elevations where 
otherwise the grade would be too steep. As many as four switch- 
backs are sometimes used in laying out a single spur. Where the 
rise is considerable, a log hoist or an incline is often cheaper than 
switchbacks or detours. 
There are two gauges used generally for logging roads in this 
region; narrow gauge, 36 inches in width, and standard gauge, 56 J 
inches in width. One exception is a road with a width of 1 meter. 
Narrow-gauge roads can be constructed for less than standard gauge, 
and the equipment is lighter and less expensive. 
The standard gauge is preferred by most operators because a larger 
tonnage can be handled at a lower cost for operation and maintenance,. 
One of its greatest advantages is that standard equipment, such as 
trunk-line cars, can be hauled on it. This is of great importance 
where the logging road connects with common-carrier railroads, 
because supplies and horse feed can be delivered at the camps in 
the original cars and any product, such as cordwood or posts, can be 
loaded for shipment on standard cars. 
The narrow gauge is preferred in very rough country, because 
sharper curves are permissible, less width of roadbed is required, and 
the construction cost is less. Further, in small or short- time opera- 
tions the investment for a narrow-gauge railroad and equipment is 
all that is justified. If a narrow gauge is selected as the proper 
type all logging railroads on the operation should be of the same 
gauge. 
The maximum grades and curvature allowable on a logging rail- 
road vary with the character of the line and the type of locomotive. 
