4 BULLETIN 1464, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
rived at are relatively large groups, called classes. Classes are then 
divided into a number of groups each relatively smaller in size, called 
subclasses. Any number of further subdivisions may be made until 
a group of individual units of the commodity is arrived at, which 
has the desired degree of uniformity or, in other words, until we 
have a group of individual units which have a relatively small 
amount of variation in essential characteristics. 
These last groups are called grades. All of the individual units 
that fall within a grade present such a narrow range of variation 
in essential characteristics that they usually sell within a compara- 
tively narrow price range. This determination of values before 
selling is the chief end sought in classifying and grading any com- 
modity for market. 
Standard market classes and grades are not possible unless the 
system is based on reasonably stable or fixed factors or characteristics 
which may be measured with fair accuracy at any time or place. 
Any system that is based on factors subject to sudden, frequent, and 
radical changes in important respects would defeat standardization. 
Furthermore, to be of practical use or benefit standard market 
classes and grades must conform closely to prevailing market customs 
and practices so that they may be easily understood and available 
for use by any one engaged in producing or distributing the com- 
modity or by those closely interested in it. 
A practical demonstration of the system of classifying and grad- 
ing cattle as outlined in this bulletin can be seen in the cattle alleys 
of any of the most highly developed and specialized livestock mar- 
kets. Here the commission firms prepare for the day's business and 
trading operations by classing and grading the cattle. 
As carried on at these markets, classifying and grading cattle are 
done by dividing and subdividing, or sorting and resorting, into a 
considerable number of lots or groups. Cattle as a whole are first 
divided or sorted into five major classes which are based on the sex 
condition — steers, heifers, cows, bulls, and stags. 
These five classes of cattle are then divided into lots or groups 
according to age. The division on the basis of age results in what 
are termed age selections of the five classes of steers, heifers, cows, 
bulls, and stags. 
The age selections of the several classes of c'attle are then often 
divided according to weight, resulting in the different weight 
selections. 
These weight selections are finally divided or sorted according to 
the degrees of conformation, finish, and quality which they possess. 
The division of the different weight selections of cattle on the basis 
of conformation, finish, and quality results in what are known as 
grades. 
When finally graded, cattle are ready for sale. They are usually 
shown to several buyers who bid on them on the basis of their degrees 
of merit for the use which the buyers have in mind. This merit is 
shown by the grade of the cattle or their degree of conformation, 
finish, and quality as related to the use which the buyer has for them. 
In placing his bid on the basis of the grade of the cattle the buyer 
always considers the class or sex condition, age, and weight of the 
cattle. 
