48 BULLETIN 
only 3 per cent. It would seem that the output should be less in light 
stands than dense ones, since more time is lost because of travel in a 
light stand than in a dense one. especially where the ground is steep 
and brushy. Of course, the opposite may be true when, because of the 
density or mixed character of the stand, two or more fellings are 
made. The difference in the output because of different species 
amounts to little or nothing, except as different species of the same 
diameter vary in volume, percentage of breakage, or percentage of 
defect. For example, the output of a set of fallers when working in 
western red cedar will be from 15 to 20 per cent Jess than when work- 
ing in Douglas fir of the same diameter, because the volume of the 
trees will be less, breakage will be higher, and the percentage of 
merchantable timber will be less. 
(6) The percentage of defect. Defect in timber increases the costs 
in the same way as breakage. This factor has been growing more 
important, and it will continue to grow in importance as utilization 
in the woods increases. Its effect in pushing up the cost is shown by 
the following case, which is exceptional: The fallers were paid 
(contract work) for 6.210.000 feet, gross scale; the buckers (contract 
work) for 1,773.000 feet, gross scale : while the logs hauled and util- 
ized scaled 2.19S.000 feet net scale. 
(7) The length of the logs. As a rule, the output of bunkers is 
larger when long lengths are cut. 
(8) The amount of windfalls. It has been pointed out that in 
order to keep the percentage of breakage as small as possible, it is 
necessary to buck the windfalls before the timber is felled. As a 
general thing, the merchantable material obtained from this class of 
timber is small, hence the cost of bucking varies with the character 
and niunber of windfalls. 
(9) The steepness and roughness of the ground. As the ground 
becomes steeper and rougher, the percentage of breakage, the time 
lost in traveling from one tree to another, and the hazards of the 
work, also the amount of wedging, undercutting, and propping, in- 
crease. All these tend to reduce the output. 
(10) The amount of brush. At times the brush is so thick that 
the fallers have to swamp out a trail in going from one tree to the 
other. 
(11) The distance of the work from the camp. Time consumed 
and energy expended in getting to and from the work have an effect 
on the output. 
EMPLOYMENT AND PAYMENT OE LABOR. 
The basis of employment and payment of labor in this region is 
generally a 10-hour day. with a charge for board. Head buckers are 
sometimes paid by the month. 
