186 BULLETIN 711, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
standpoint of clown timber, brush, and dead snags was unusually 
difficult. There were no heavy fills. 
GRADING THE EIGHT OF WAY. 
Fills and cuts are introduced to equalize the irregularities of the 
soil, the process being known as grading. 
Fills on standard gauge logging roads should be from 12 to 14 
feet wide on top. The standard slopes for an earthwork fill are 1-J 
horizontal to 1 vertical. When the fill is made of the material from a 
rock cut, it is possible to make a stable embankment with a slope 
ratio of 1:1. On sidehill work, where a slope of 1J : 1 or 1 : 1 might 
be a very long slope, it is often advisable to make a wall of rock or 
timber that will have a slope ratio of f : 1 or steeper. 
In cuts the roadbed should be wide enough to give room for a 
drainage ditch on either side. This will require from 2 to 3 addi- 
tional feet on each side, and the cut should be about 16 feet at the 
base. With cuts in the hardest rock the slopes will be J : 1, or nearly 
perpendicular. As the soil becomes less firm the slope may be flat- 
tened until, for a soil of firm earth or gravel, a slope of 1 : 1 may be 
permissible, although a slope of 1 J : 1 is commonly adopted. The 
aim is to move as little dirt as possible. 
Main-line logging roads are graded up carefully, and suitable 
ditches are maintained. Even on level sections it is desirable to 
elevate the track and put in ditches because of the lower cost of 
maintenance during wet weather. On spurs a minimum of fill and 
cutwork is done, and ditching is not resorted to unless absolutely 
necessary. 
For the purpose of constructing a road as well as for calculating 
the earthwork, a grade profile or profiles may be prepared. This 
enables the engineer to fit the line to the ground in such a manner 
as to secure the best adjustment of the alignment and grade consist- 
ent with an economical cost of construction. It is not practical or 
necessary, however, for a timber appraiser to secure such intensive 
data, and his estimate of the cost of grading in a given case is not 
more than substantially correct. The appraiser's estimate, however, 
should be high enough to cover all cost, a liberal allowance being 
made to cover unforeseen; contingencies that may develop during con- 
struction. Handbooks prepared for the use of civil engineers deal 
with the methods of calculating the cubical contents of earthwork. 
The cost of the movement of earth depends to a great extent on 
the character of the material. The following extract from " Log- 
ging," by Bryant, shows the effect of the character of the material 
moved on the cost of grading: 
The movement of earth and rock in the construction of cuts and fills is most 
frequently done by contract, The unit on which payment is hased is the cubic 
