10 BULLETIN 1358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
MOST FEASIBLE KINDS OF WATER DEVELOPMENT 
In developing watering places the improvement of all existing |) 
natural water supplies should be given first consideration. Springs, | 
including those of very weak flow, often called “seeps,” are ordi- 9 
narily the cheapest to develop and require but little attention or | 
upkeep. Where areas are devoid of springs or running streams, or 
where such waters are insufficient, wells or storm-water reservoirs | 
Wells continue to be the mainstay of many livestock water systems. | } 
They are less likely to fail when needed most and possess another big — 
advantage of providing water more nearly where needed and usually | 
of better quality. They are of especial value where water can be } 
obtained at reasonable depths and where soils or drainage are un- | 
suited for economical reservoir construction or maintenance. ‘a 
Where springs are absent and well water obtainable only at great 
depth if at all, reservoirs to impound storm water are necessary. | 
(Pl. I, fig. 2.) Again, the need for economy of first cost may some- | 
times justify a surface reservoir rather than a well, even if the rela- 
tive upkeep costs are in doubt. Large, deep reservoirs furnish fairly ~ 
permanent supplies of water for livestock. Small, inexpensive ones f 
which hold water for only.a few weeks or months are often impor- | 
tant to permit the use of back corners of choice feed. (PI. II, fig. 2.) © 
SPRINGS 
Except in the few localities in the Southwest where running water — 
is plentiful, most springs or seeps will repay the expense of develop- | 
ment. Dangerous bog holes may often be transformed into valuable | 
watering places by the expenditure of a few dollars. Methods of | 
developing springs are discussed in detail by Barnes (/), Gregory | 
(12), Warren (26), and others. 
In general, excavation should be extended as close as practicable | 
to the place where the water emerges from the underlying rock. It — 
may not be necessary to dig down to bedrock if an adequate supply — 
of water can be secured on a satisfactory foundation of clay or | 
gravel. The excavation, unless in rock or very compact rock-and- — 
clay mixture, should be curbed or walled to co!lect a head of water 
and to prevent caving. Cement blocks, concrete, or other masonry © 
are superior to logs or boards and are usually cheaper in the end, — 
though the latter are often used with good results where the trouble — 
and expense of replacement are not excessive. The outlet pipe in the © 
curbing should be located several inches at least above the bottom 7 
to avoid obstruction of the pipe from the mud or débris that will | 
collect in the sump. The level of a spring may sometimes be raised 7 
in the curbing or box, provided the head of the spring is high | 
enough and the surrounding soil well packed. A large flat rock or | 
a snugly fitting lid of some kind should be provided to exclude dirt, © 
trash, and small animals that might otherwise fall into the spring. — 
This lid or cover should be removable, because it will be desirable : 
at times to clean the sump or to put a new strainer over the end of | 
the pipe. When there is danger of severe freezing it is advisable 
to close the pipe at the intake, In that case an outlet or spillway 
