102 
Mycologia 
Reinke, Schneider, and other advocates of consortism, as is 
well known, regard the relation of the lichen to the alga with 
which it grows so intimate and mutualistic that the plants growing 
together must be considered collectively as an individual. It is 
not deemed essential to the hypothesis that both symbionts should 
be equally benefited by the association; nor is it regarded neces- 
sary that the relation should be beneficial to both symbionts in all 
respects. It is said by its adherents to be important for the 
hypothesis that each member should be aided more than injured 
by the symbiosis, so that the final outcome is advantage to both. 
Added to this is the intimate union of the two symbionts into 
what appeared, until de Bary and Schwendener proved otherwise, 
to be a veritable morphological unit. According to the hypoth- 
esis, only one of the symbionts need be wholly dependent upon the 
other, in order that a new individual may be formed with morpho- 
logical and physiological characters quite distinct. The other 
symbiont may be able to live outside the association. The fact 
established by Frank (58) that certain lower lichens can and do 
usually exist during a large part of their life outside the relation- 
ship with algae is overlooked, and we are given also the contrary 
statement that the fungus does not and never has existed as such 
free in nature. It is claimed that the algae found in lichens are 
more difficult to cultivate than free algae; and this is said to 
indicate that the algae of these symbiotic associations will in time 
become as dependent upon the symbiotic relationship as are the 
fungi now, except perhaps in the lowest lichens. So it is sup- 
posed that the relation is becoming closer and closer, and that 
finally it will be so intimate that neither symbiont will be able to 
live independently. Then will the individualism be perfect ac- 
cording to the hypothesis. This erroneous hypothesis is refuted 
by certain considerations to follow in this paper. 
The term “ consortium ” was proposed for the peculiar relation 
of lichens to algae by Reinke (65, 104, 105), at the suggestion of 
Grisebach, and was adopted by de Bary (16), who advocated 
mutualism and individualism, though he seems to have repu- 
diated both later. Recent views expressed by Artari (5, 6), 
Schneider (109, no, in, 112, 114), Peirce (98, 99), Elenkin 
