104 
IMycologia 
directed mainly toward refutations of mutualism, consortism and 
individualism; and it is true that lichens resemble other fungi 
so strongly that there can be no reasonable doubt, once the dual 
hypothesis is disproved. The best presentation is that of Clem- 
ents (35)- This writer has avoided the inconsistencies so com- 
monly committed by those who treat lichens as fungi, and has 
given a strong refutation of the consortism hypothesis of Reinke. 
He also incidentally makes plain, in the paper cited, his views 
regarding the nature of lichens and their classification. Besides 
Clements’ paper, some of the last 14 quotations in Mycologia 
(55) are strong arguments. These are directed mainly toward 
the less fundamental matter of the distribution of lichens, a con- 
sideration barely touched in Clements’ paper. 
One reads sometimes of the arguments of de Bary and 
Schwendener for the fungal-nature view, but these men never 
believed that lichens are fungi. On looking through the 1884 
edition of his text-book, one finds that de Bary (17) took the 
remarkable position that the fungus is parasitic on the alga, but 
that both are none the less parts of the lichen. His earlier views 
noted above, in which he recognized consortism, though incorrect, 
are more tenable. Probably Schwendener’s paper of 1873 (121), 
more than any of his other articles, has caused some botanists to 
suppose that he regarded lichens as fungi. Indeed, the title 
would render any other position untenable for him; but, while he 
maintains that the chlorophyllous cells are algae, wherever he 
commits himself in the paper, he makes these algae parts of the 
lichen. 
Re.vsons for Regarding Lichens as Fungi 
The main arguments of those who believe that lichens are 
fungi, so far as they relate to the nature of the lichen rather 
than to classification, are as follows. The luxuriant growth 
and the rapid multiplication of algal cells within a lichen are 
not due to mutualistic relation with the lichen, but rather to 
some condition of parasitism, perhaps hypernutrition caused by 
irritation. It is pointed out that the vegetative structure and the 
fruits of lichens are similar to those of other Ascomycetes. It is 
said further that phylogenetic and morphological continuity is 
