■ HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 
A— THE SCIENCE OF OCEANOGRAPHY. 
Down till tlie early part of the present century the observation of marine phenomena 
was almost exclusively limited to the surface and sub-surface waters of the ocean. In 
the interests of navigation the hydrographer had undertaken a survey of coasts, an 
examination of oceanic routes useful for commerce, and a discussion of the winds, tides, 
and currents by which these were affected, but the observations of the biologist, the 
chemist, and geologist did not extend beyond the shallow water surrounding the dry 
land, nor deeper than a few fathoms. Our knowledge of the ocean was. literally speaking 
superficial. No systematic attempts had been made to ascertain the physical and biological 
conditions of that vast region of the earth’s surface occupied by the deeper waters of 
the ocean : the apparatus necessary for such investigations had not yet been invented. 
The desire to establish telegraphic communication between Europe and America 
gave the first direct impulse towards a systematic exploration of the deep sea The 
mprovement in methods and apparatus within recent years has been so rapid that it is 
now possible to examine the most profound depths of the ocean with great precision. 
The recognition of oceanography as a distinct branch of science may be said to date from 
the commencement of deep-sea researches. 
The oceanographer takes account of everything relating to the ocean , his investiga- 
tions deal with the form and divisions of all marine areas on. the surface of the globe, 
the winds that blow over the surface waters, the contours of the ocean bed from tin 
sea-level down to the greatest depths, the temperature, the circulation, the physical am. 1 
chemical properties of sea-water, the currents, tides, waves, the composition and 
distribution of marine deposits, the nature and distribution of marine organisms t f 
surface, in the intermediate waters, and on the floor of the ocean, as well as the 
modifications brought about in living things by the conditions of their existence, il 
relations of man to the ocean in the development of fisheries, commerce, civilisation, 
navigation, hydrography, and maritime meteorology. All this vast assemblage *i 
knowledge, which embraces some aspects of astronomy, geography, geolog}’, phy- • >. 
chemistry, and the biological sciences, makes up the modern science of oceanograpl. 
(SUMMARY OF RESULTS CHALL. EXP. — 1894 .) 
Progress of 
Knowledge con- 
cerning the 
Ocean. 
The Modern 
Science of 
Oceanography. 
