FAR 
PAR 
P A it 
357 
PARALLELISM of the earth's axis. See 
Astronomy. 
PAlU\LLELGGRAM. See Geome- 
try. 
PARALOGISM, in logic, a false reason- 
ing, or a fault committed in demonstration, 
when a consequence is drawn from principles 
that are false ; or, though true, are not 
proved; or when a proposition is passed over 
that should have been proved by the way. 
PARALYSIS, 1 hr pals?/. See Medicine. 
PARAMECIUM, a genus of the order 
vermes infusoria, invisible to the naked eye, 
simple, pellucid, Rattened, oblong. There 
are seven species. The P. aurelia is com- 
pressed, longitudinally plaited towards the 
fore-part, acute behind. It is found in ditch- 
water and infusions ; membranaceous, four 
times as long as it is broad, the fore-part ob- 
tuse, hyaline; the hind part tilled with mole- 
cules; "the gold reaching from the middle to 
the tip. 
PARAMETER, in conic sections, a con- 
stant line, otherwise called latus rectum. See 
Conic Sections. 
The parameter is said to be constant, be- 
cause in the parabola the rectangle under it 
and any absciss is always equal to the square 
of the corresponding! semiordinate ; and in 
the ellipsis and hyperbola, it is a third pro- 
portional to the conjugate and transverse 
axis. 
Thus, if t and c are the two axes in the ellipse 
and hyperbola, and x and y an absciss and its 
ordinate in the parabola : it will be 
i 
the parameter in the 
ellipse and hyperbola, 
<y 2 
and x \ y \ \ y \ p — — the parameter m the 
parabola. 
PARAMOUNT, the supreme or highest 
lord of the fee. This seigniory of a lord pa- 
ramount is frequently termed an honour, and 
not a manor; especi illy if it has belonged 
to an antient feudal baron, or has been at 
any time in the hands of the crown. 2 Black. 
91. 
PARAPET, in fortification, an elevation of 
earth designed for covering the soldiers from 
the enemy’s cannon or small shot. The 
thickness of the parapet is from 18 to 20 feet; 
its height is six feet on the inside, and four or 
live on the outside. It is raised on the ram- 
part, and has a slope above called the supe- 
rior talus, and sometimes the glacis of the 
parapet. The exterior talus of the parapet 
is the slope facing the country: there is a 
banquette or two ior the soldiers who defend 
the parapet to mount upon, that they may 
tiie belter discover the country, fosse, and 
counterscarp, and fire as they find occasion. 
Parapet of the covert way, or corridor, is 
what coveys that way from the sight of the 
enemy, which renders it the most dangerous 
place for the besiegers, because of the neigh- 
bourhood of the faces, Ranks, and curt. us of 
the place. 
Parapet, is also a little wall raised breast- 
high 011 the banks of bridges, quays, or high 
buildings, to serve as a stay, and prevent 
people tailing over. 
PARAPHERNALIA, are the woman’s 
apparel, jewels, and other things, which, in 
the life-time of her husband, she wO'-e as the 
ornaments of her person, to be allowed by 
the discretion of the court, according to the 
quality ot her and her husband. The hus- 
band cannot devise such ornaments and jewels 
of his wife; though, during his life, he has 
power to dispose of them. But if she con- 
tinues in the use of them till his death, she 
shall afterwards retain them against his exe- 
cutors and administrators, legatees, and all 
other persons, except creditors where there 
is a deficiency of assets. 2 Black. 4.30. 
PARAPLEGIA, or Paraplexia, in me- 
dicine, a species of paralysis or palsv, usually 
succeeding an apoplexy. See Medicine. 
PARASANG, an antient Persian measure, 
different at different times, and in different 
places ; being sometimes 30, sometimes 40, 
and sometimes 50 stadia or furlongs. 
PARASITES, or Parasitical plants, 
in botany, such plants as are produced out of 
the trunk or branches of other plants, from 
whence they receive their nourishment, and 
will not grow upon the ground, as the nfisle- 
to, Ac. 
PARCEL-MAKERS, two officers in the 
exchequer, who make parcels of the eschea- 
tor’s accounts, in which they charge them 
with every thing they have’ levied for the 
king’s use, within the time of their office, and 
deliver the same to one of the auditors of the 
court, to make their accounts therewith. 
PARCHMENT, in commerce, the skin 
of sheep or goats prepared after such a man- 
ner as to render it proper for writing upon, 
covering books, &c. 
The manufacture of parchment is begun 
by the skinner, and finished by the parch- 
ment-maker. The skin having been stripped 
of its wool, and placed in the lime-pit, in the 
manner described under the article Shammy, 
the skinner stretches it on a kind of frame, 
and pares off the Resh with an iron instru- 
ment; this done, it is moistened with a rag, 
and powdered chalk being spread over it, the 
skinner takes a large pumice-stone, flat at 
bottom, and rubs over the skin, and thus 
scours off the Resh ; he then goes over it 
again with the iron instrument, moistens it as 
before, and rubs it again with the pumice- 
stone without any chalk underneath: this 
smooths and softens the flesh-side very con- 
siderably. He then drains it again, by pass- 
ing over it the iron instrument as before. 
The flesh-side being thus drained, by scrap- 
ing off the moisture, he in the same manner 
passes the iron over the wool or hair side: 
then stretches it tight on a frame, and scrapes 
the flesh-side again : this finishes its draining; 
and the more it is drained, the whiter it be- 
comes. The skinner now. throws on more 
chalk, sweeping it over with a piece of lamb- 
skin that has the wool on, and this smooths 
it still farther. It is now left to dry, and 
when dried, taken off the frame by cutting it 
all round. The skin thus far prepared by 
the skinner, is taken out of his hands by the 
parchment-maker, who first, when it is dry, 
pares it on a summer (which is a calfskin 
stretched in a frame) with a sharper instru- 
ment than that used by the skinner, and 
working with the arm from the top to the 
bottom of tiie skin, takes away about one- 
half 01 its thickness. The skin thus equally 
pared on the flesh-side, is again rendered 
smooth, by being rubbed with the pumice- 
stone, 0:1 a bench covered with a sack stuffed 
with flocks, which leaves the parchment in a 
condition lit for writing upon. The parings 
thus taken otf the leather, are used in making- 
glue, size, &c. 
\\ hat is called vellum, is only parchment 
made of the skins of abortives, or at least 
sucking calves. This has a much finer grain, 
and is whiter and smoother than parchment ; 
but is prepared in the same manner, except 
in not being passed through the lime-pit. 
PARDON, is the remitting or forgiving a 
felony or other offence committed against 
the king. * 
Blackstone mentions the power of pardon- 
ing offences to lie one of the greatest advan- 
tages of monarchy in general above every 
other form of government ; and which can- 
not subsist in democracies. Its utility and 
necessity are defended by him on all those 
principles which do honour to human nature. 
See 4 Black. 396. 
Pardons are either general or special ; ge- 
neral as by act of parliament, of which, if 
they are without exceptions, the court must 
take notice ex officio; but if there are ex- 
ceptions therein, the party must aver that he 
is none ef the persons excepted. 3 Inst. 233. 
Special pardons are either of course, as to 
persons convicted of manslaughter, or se de- 
fendendo, and by several statutes to those - 
who shall discover their accomplices in seve- 
ral felonies; or of grace, which are by the 
king’s charter, of which the court cannot take 
notice ex officio, but they must be pleaded, 
3 Inst. 233. 
A pardon may be conditional, that is, the 
king may extend his mercy upon what terms 
he pleases ; and may annex to his bounty a 
condition either precedent or subsequent, on. 
the performance whereof, the validity of the 
pardon will depend; and this by the common 
law. 2 Haw. 37. 
All pardons must be under the great seal. 
The effect of a pardon is to make the offender 
a new man ; to acquit him of all corporal 
penalties and forfeitures annexed to that of- 
fence; and to give him a new credit and ca- 
pacity: but nothing but an act of parliament 
can restore or purify the blood after an at- 
tainder. 
PAREGORICS. See Pharmacy. 
PARENCHYMA of plants, that part of 
the plant that lies immediately below the epi- 
dermis. It is of a deep-green colour, very 
tender, and succulent. See Plants, physi- 
ology of. 
PARENTHESIS, in grammar, certain in- 
tercalary words, inserted in a discourse, which 
interrupt the sense or thread, but seem ne- 
cessary for the better understanding of the 
subject. 
PARENTS AND CHILDREN. If pa- 
rents run away, and leave their children at 
the charge of the parish, the churchwardens 
and overseers, by order of the justices, may 
seize the rents, goods, and chattels, of such 
parents, and dispose thereof towards their 
children’s maintenance. 
A parent may lawfully correct his child, 
being under age, in a reason ble manner; 
but the legal power of the father over the 
persons of his children, ceases at the age of 
21. 1 Black. 452. 
PARHELION. See Optics. 
PARIAN CHRONICLE. See Arun- 
DEL1AN MARBLES, 
