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narration and description. In all, unity of 
design is indispensable. In discourse or rea- ; 
soiling, the object is to prove and impress on ! 
the mind some truth or series of truths. Here 
the bond of connection is cause and effect : 
the reason why such and such a thing must 
he so and so, and cannot be, or reasonably 
he supposed to be, otherwise. We believe 
certain things, it is true, on authority, or the 
testimony of others; but then it must be ob- 
served we judge of evidence by reason. 
fa respect to unity of design, there is a very 
near resemblance between epic poetry and 
history. The unity of design and action re- 
quired in both differs not in kind but in de- 
gree. In epic or narrative poetry, the con- 
nection among the events related or describ- 
ed is more close and sensible. The narra- 
tion is not carried on through such a length 
of time; and the actors hasten to some re- 
markable period which satisfies the curiosity 
of the reader. This difference between the 
epic poem and history, depends on that par- 
ticular situation of the imagination and the 
passions which is supposed in the former, 
idle imagination of both writer and reader is 
more enlivened, and the passions more in- 
flamed, than in history, civil, political, or 
.literary, biography, or any species of nar- 
ration that confines itself to strict truth and 
reality. The same unity of design that runs 
through the epopeia, must also run through 
dramatic compositions, whether comic or 
tragic. Even in an ode, though the poet 
may be hurried from his plan for a time, or 
perhaps (as is sometimes the case, even with 
Horace) drop it altogether, there must appear 
some aim or design at least in the outset. 
The connecting principle among the se- 
veral events or circumstances which form the 
subject of a poem, may. be very different ac- 
cording to the different designs of the poet. 
The Metamorphoses of Ovid is a work that 
embraces every fabulous transformation pro- 
duced by the power of the gods. Thus, his 
plan is formed upon the connecting principle 
of resemblance. The subject of poetry forms 
a distinct article in the present work; but as 
unity of design is a principle common to all 
kinds of composition, it saves repetition to 
glance at poetical as well as rhetorical or 
prosaic composition, as far as this universal 
principle in ail works of art is concerned. 
As there may be different connecting prin- 
ciples in poetical, so also there may be in his- 
torical composition ; and in every species of 
this composition, as in that, there must he 
some connecting principle, some bond of 
union among the different parts. Even in an 
epistle communicating or requiring informa- 
tion, there is a unity of design. In grave 
and serious letters, the subject is naturally 
and almost necessarily one ; and even in the 
most light and familiar epistles there is this 
unity; that while they relate to a thousand 
particulars indifferent to all the world besides, 
they all of them relate to the situation, cir- 
cumstances, and feelings, either of the writer, 
or the friend to whom the letter is addressed. 
Here the design is both interesting and closely 
attended to, in the eye of the parties con- 
cerned, even in proportion as the compo- 
sition appears both uninteresting and desult- 
ory to others. In memoirs and anecdotes 
too, though apparently a mere collection of 
materials for building an edifice, there is an 
Unity of design, in as much as they relate to 
RHETORIC. 
some one person, or class of persons, some 
distinct time or period, or some place or 
country. Thus we have Memoirs of Fre- 
deric the Great of Prussia, Curious Collec- 
tions relating to the State of Society in the 
middle Ages, and Anecdotes of the Court and 
Empire ot Russia. In biography, th« unity 
of design is manifest. That there is an unity 
ot design in natural history, consisting chiefly 
in classification as well as description, need's 
no illustration. 
But the grand province of history, and 
what is generally understood bv the term, is, 
History civil and political. The state, 
progress, or vicissitudes of society, in any 
particular period or country, in government, 
science, art, manners, and general civiliza- 
tion. The annalist, in his collections, or ra- 
ther selections, (for it would be as absurd, as 
it is impossible, to record every thing) is 
guided by the connection of contiguity in 
time or place; the philosophical, the true, 
and legitimate historian, by that of cause and 
etfect. “ He traces the series of actions, ac- 
cording to their natural order, remounts to 
their secret springs and principles, and deli- 
neates their most remote consequences. He 
chooses for his subject a certain portion of 
that great chain of events which compose the 
history of mankind. Each link in this chain 
he endeavours to touch in his narration. 
Sometimes unavoidable ignorance renders all 
his attempts fruitless ; sometimes he supplies 
by conjecture what is wanting in knowledge ; 
and always he is sensible that the more un- 
broken the chain is, which he presents to his 
readers, the more perfect is his production. 
He sees that the knowledge of causes is not 
only the most satisfactory, (this relation or 
connection being the strongest of all); but 
also the most instructive: hence it is by this 
knowledge alone, that we are enabled to 
controul events and govern the future.” 
Hume’s Essays. Association of Ideas. 
I he matter of a composition being pre- 
pared, and the general design formed, the 
next thing to be considered is 
The order of arrangement of the parts of 
a composition. And first of all, on this head, 
it may be observed that the authors of written 
compositions, usually, as is very natural and 
proper, set out with an introduction, whether 
in the form of a preface, or address to tiie 
reader, separate from the body of the work, 
or in the beginning of the work itself, without 
any distinction or separation. If the com- 
position is addressed to the ear, the orator 
bespeaks the candid attention of his hearers 
by removing any prejudices they may be 
supposed to have conceived, and shewing the 
interest and importance of the subject of his 
discourse. He considers well what is the 
state or tone of mind of his hearers. To this 
he addresses himself in the first place; and 
endeavours to carry them along with him from 
one step or stage to another, till through a 
train of reasoning he arrives at the conclusion. 
There is a familiar illustration of the nature 
and use of an introduction or exordium to be 
met with every day in our house of com- 
mons; where the speakers often assure the 
house, when it begins to grow late, or when, 
from any other cause, it betrays symptoms of 
impatience or inattention, that “ they will 
not trespass on their time for more than a very 
few minutes.” In like manner the writer of 
a discourse' or essay bespeaks the candid at- 
tention of his readers, by giving some general 
account of the nature of his design. If it is a 
question in history or philosophy, that is, con- 
kerning either matter of fact, or relations of 
ideas, he follows up his introduction imme- 
diately with a statement and history of the 
controversy. In some instances this state- 
ment and history are the only introduction ; 
and, indeed, if the question is universally and 
highly interesting, there is no other intro- 
duction necessary : there can be none better. 
It is not billy in doctrinal or didactic subjects 
that some introduction is required, but also 
even inmost poetical, especially the epic, and 
historical compositions. The poet announces 
and gives an outline of his subject and de- 
sign at the outset of his work, in order to in- 
terest his reader in its farther rieveiopement. 
He awakens curiosity by some of the most 
striking events in his narrative. Thus Ho- 
mer tells you at once that he sings of the 
wrath of Achilles : 
“ That wrath which hurl’d to Pluto’s dreary 
reign, 
The souls of mighty chiefs, untimely slain.” 
Thus, in the Odyssey, lie interests us in his 
design by a glimpse of the character of 
Ulysses, and his adventures after the reduc- 
tion of Troy. Thus Virgil, having introduced 
himself to the reader, by letting him know 
who he was, in the first seven lines ot the 
riEneid gives a summary view of the hard- 
ships, sufferings, and designs of iEneas. He 
introduces him first near the period when 
his designs were accomplished ; designs that 
could not tail to interest every Roman ; and 
afterwards shews, as in perspective, the more 
distant events, circumstances, and causes, that 
led to their formation, and crowned them 
with success. Thus Milton interests the 
Christian reader by letting him know in the 
outset of Paradise Tost, that he sings 
“ Of man’s first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all ous. 
woe, 
With loss ot Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat.” 
Thus, also, Virgil announces his different de- 
signs in the exordiums of his different books 
ot Georgies; and thus also Thomson, in his 
Seasons. 
In dramatic pieces there is no annuncia- 
tion of a, design, because suspense is kept up 
till the catastrophe. In tragedy, the design 
is, however, partly announced by the very 
name or names ot the illustrious heroes or 
princes to whom it relates ; and in comedy, 
the design is in some measure frequently ex- 
pressed in the title; as In Love for Love; the- 
Busybody; the laming of the Shrew; the 
Careless Husband: the Jealous Wife; the- 
School for Scandal, &c. 
With regard to that most extensive and 
important branch of composition, civil and 
political history, here too an introduction or 
annunciation of the design is as natural as in 
the epopeia; and it may be added, it is pre- 
cisely of the same kind. The genera! effect 
or impression, the most striking event, truth, 
inference, or moral, that remains uppermost 
in the mind, after reviewing any series of 
events, and which serves as a bond of union 
among the occurrences and transactions,. 
