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parts of the atmosphere, with the immense 
velocity peculiar to planetary motion, are 
rendered luminous for a short space, when in 
perig:eo,and occasion the appearance of shoot- 
ing-stars ; which are found to piove in all 
directions so numerously, that M. Benzen- 
berg, in the space of one night, observed 
500 of them (Monthly Mag. xxii. 223). The 
same masses, when they dip deeper into the 
atmosphere, being more heated, are sup- 
posed to appear as meteors; arid, by the in- 
creasing resistance of the air in each of their 
revolutions, to fall at length to the earth in 
the fragments called meteoric stones, (see 
that article, where the opinions cf different 
philosophers on the origin of these very curi- 
ous substances may be seen.) In the same 
manner that Dr. Herschel uses the term 
asteroids, to express the planetary bodies re- 
volving round the sun, which are smaller than 
the anciently known planets ; satellitula are 
bodies, smaller than the moon, revolving 
round the earth as their centre of gravitation. 
Star. See Heraldry. 
Star, in pyrotechny, a composition of 
combustible matters, which, being thrown 
aloft in the air, exhibits the appearance of a 
real star. See Pyrotechny. 
Star-board, in the sea-language, denotes 
the right-hand side of a ship : thus they say, 
star-board the helm, or helm a star-board, 
when he that conds would have the men at 
the helm, or steering-wheel, put the helm to 
the right side of the ship. 
Star-fish. See Asterias. 
Star-shot, a gelatinous substance fre- 
quently found in fields, and supposed by the 
vulgar to have been produced from the me- 
teor called a falling-star; but, in reality, is 
the half-digested food of herons, sea-mews, 
and the like birds ; fur these birds, when 
shot, have been found to disgorge a substance 
of the same kind. 
Star-stone, asteria, in natural history, 
a name given to certain extraneous fossil 
stones, in form of short, and commonly some- 
what crooked, columns, composed of several 
joints ; each resembling the figure of a radi- 
ated star, with a greater or smaller number 
of rays in the different species : they are 
usually found of about an inch in length, and 
of the thickness of a goose-quill. Some of 
them have five angles, or rays, and others 
only four ; and in some the angles are equi- 
distant, while in others they are irregularly 
so ; in some also they are short and blunt, 
while in others they are long, narrow, and 
pointed ; and some have their angles so very 
short and obtuse, that at first sight they might 
be taken for entrochoasteriae. The several 
joints in the same specimen are usually all 
of the same thickness ; this however is not 
always the case, but in some they are larger 
at one end, and in others at the middle, than 
-in any other part of the body ; and some spe- 
cies have one of the rays bifid, so as to emu- 
late the appearance of a six-rayed kind. 
STARCH. If a quantity of wheat-flour 
is formed into a paste, and then held under a 
very small stream of water, kneading con- 
tinually till the water runs off from it colour- 
less, the flour by this process is divided into 
two distinct constituents. A tough sub- 
stance of a dirty-white colour, called gluten, 
remains- in the hand ; the water is at first 
milky; but soon deposits a white powder, 
which is known by the name of starch. A 
sweet-tasted mucilaginous substance remains 
dissolved in the water. 
The starch obtained by this process is not 
altogether free from gluten ; hence its colour 
is not very white, and it has not that fine 
crystallized appearance which distinguishes 
the starch of commerce. Manufact urers em- 
ploy a more economical and more efficacious 
process. Good wheat, or the bran of wheat, 
is allowed to steep in cold water till it be- 
comes soft, and yields a milky juice when 
squeezed. It is then taken out of the water ; 
put into coarse linen sacks, which are sub- 
jected to pressure in a vat filled with’ water; 
a milky juice containing abundance of starch 
exudes, and mixes with the water of the vat. 
This process is repeated as long as the wheat 
yields any milky juice. The sack and its 
contents are then removed. The starch soon 
falls to the bottom of the vat; and the water 
which covers it gradually ferments, in conse- 
quence of the substances which it holds in 
solution. Alcohol and vinegar are formed 
in it ; partly, no doubt, at the expence of the 
starch. The vinegar, thus formed, dissolves 
all the impunities, and leaves nothing behind 
but starch. It is then poured off, and the 
starch edulcorated with water. It is after- 
wards dried bva moderate heat. During the 
drying it usually splits into small columnar 
masses, which have a considerable degree of 
regularity. The water which has stood over 
the starch was analyzed by Vauquelin. It 
contains a considerable portion of alcohol 
and of acetic acid. The acid holds in solu- 
tion gluten somewhat altered, phosphat of 
lime, and ammonia. 
Starch was well known to the antients. 
Pliny informs us, that the method of obtain- 
ing it was first invented by the inhabitants of 
the island of Chio. 
Starch has a fine white colour, and is 
usually concreted in longish masses ; it has 
scarcely any smell, and very little taste. 
When kept dry, it continues for a long time 
uninjured though exposed to the air. 
Starch does not dissolve in cold water, but 
very soon falls to powder, and forms with it 
a kind of emulsion. It combines with boiling 
water, and forms with it a thick paste. Linen 
dipt into this paste, and afterwards dried sud- 
denly, acquires, as is well known, a great 
degree of stiffness. When the paste is allow- 
ed to cool, it assumes the form of a semi- 
transparent jelly ; which, when dried by ar- 
tificial heat, becomes brittle, and assumes an 
appearance not unlike that of gum. Hence 
it is supposed that starch, by being boiled in 
water, undergoes a certain degree of decom- 
position, which brings it nearly to the state 
of gum. When this paste is left exposed to 
damp air, it soon loses its consistency, ac- 
quires an acid taste, and its surface is cover- 
ed with mould. 
Starch is so far from dissolving in alcohol, 
even when assisted by heat, that it does not 
even fall to powder. 
When starch is thrown into any of the 
mineral acids, at first no apparent change is 
visible; but if an attempt is made to reduce 
the larger pieces, while in acids, to powder, 
they resist it, and feel exceedingly tough and 
adhesive. Sulphuric acid dissolves it slowly, 
and at the same time a smell of sulphurous 
acid is emitted ; and such a quantity of char* 
coal is evolved, that the vessel containing the 
mixture may be inverted without spilling any 
of it. Indeed, if the quantity of starch is sui- 
ficiflit, the mixture becomes perfectly solid. 
The charcoal may be separated by dilution 
and filtration. In muriatic acid starch dis- 
solves still more slowly. The solution re- 
sembles mucilage of gum-arabic, and still 
retains the peculiar odour of muriatic acid. 
When allowed to stand for some time, the so- 
lution gradually separates into two parts: a 
perfectly transparent straw-coloured liquid 
below; and a thick, muddy, oily, or rather 
mucilaginous substance, above. When water 
is poured in, the muriatic smell instantly dis- 
appears, and a strong smell is exhaled, pre- 
cisely similar to that which is perceived in 
corn-mills. Ammonia occasions a slight pre- 
cipitate, but too small to be examined. 
Nitric acid dissolves starch more rapidly 
than the other two acids ; it acquires a green 
colour, and emits nitrous gas. The solution 
is never complete, nor do any crystals of 
oxalic acid appear unless heat is applied. 
In this respect starch differs from sugar, which 
yields oxalic acid with nitric acid, even at 
the temperature of the atmosphere. When 
heat is applied to the solution of starch in 
nitric acid, both oxalic and malic acid are 
formed, but the undissolved substance still 
remains. When separated by filtration, and 
afterwards edulcorated, this" substance has 
the appearance of a thick oil, not unlike tal- 
low ; but it dissolves readily in alcohol. 
When distilled, it yields acetic acid, and an 
oil having the smeil and the consistence of 
tallow. 
The alkalies dissolve starch ; but their ac- 
tion has not been examined with care. In 
pure potass it swells, and assumes the appear- 
ance of a transparent jelly. In this state the 
solution is soluble in alcohol. 
When starch is thrown upon a hot iron, 
it melts, blackens, froths, smells, and burns 
with a bright flame like sugar, emitting, at 
the same time, a great deal of smoke; but it 
does not explode, nor has it the calomel smell 
which distinguishes burning sugar. When 
distilled, it yields water impregnated with an 
acid, supposed to be the pyromucous, a little 
empyreumatic oil, and a great deal of car- 
bonic acid and carbureted hydrogen gas. 
The charcoal which remains is easily d.ssi- 
pated when set on fire in the open air; a 
proof that it contains very little earth. 
Barley-grain consists almost entirely of 
starch, not however in a state of perfect 
purity. In the process of malting, which is 
nothing else than causing the barley to begin 
to vegetate, a great part of the starch is con- 
verted into sugar. During this process 
oxygen gas is absorbed, and carbonic acid 
gas is emitted. Water, too, is absolutely ne- 
cessary ; hence it is probable that it is decom- 
posed, and its hydrogen retained. Starch, 
then, seems to be converted into sugar by 
diminishing the proportion of its carbon, and 
increasing that of its hydrogen and oxygen. 
Its distillation shews us that it contains no 
other ingredient than these three. 
Starch is contained in a great variety of 
vegetable substances ; most commonly in 
their seeds or bulbous roots, but sometimes 
also in other parts. Mr. Parmentier, whose 
experiments have greatly contributed towards 
an accurate knowledge of starch, has given us 
