S U G 
sue 
SUBTRACTION. See Arithmetic, 
and Algebra. 
SUBULARIA, rough leaved ahsson, or 
awlivort, a genus of plants belonging to the 
class of tetradvnamia, aud-order o! siliculosa ; 
and in the natural order ranking under the 
39th order, siliquos®. The silicula is entire 
and ovate ; the valves are ovate, concave, 
and contrary to the partitions. The style is 
shorter than the siiiciila. There is only one 
species, the aquatica, which is a native of 
Britain. 
SUBULATED. See Botany. 
SUGG 1 NATS, salts formed with the suc- 
cinic acid, which see, 
SUCCINIC ACID. Amber is a well- 
known brown, transparent, inflammable body, 
pretty hard, and susceptible of polish, found 
at some depth in the earth, and on the sea- 
coast of several countries. It was in high es- 
timation among the antients both as an orna- 
ment and a medicine. When this substance 
is distilled, a volatile salt is obtained, which is 
mentioned by Agricola under the name of 
salt of amber; but its nature was long un- 
known. Boyle was the first who discovered 
that it was an acid. From succinum, the 
Latin name of amber, this acid has received 
the appellation of succinic acid. 
1. It is obtained by the following process: 
Fill a retort half-way with powdered amber, 
and cover the powder with a quantity ot dry 
sand ; lute on a receiver, and distil in a sand- 
bath without employing too much heat. 
There passes over first an insipid phlegm ; 
then a weak acid, which, according to Scheele, 
is the acetic ; then the succinic acid attaches 
itself to the neck of the retort ; and it the dis- 
tillation is continued, there comes over at last 
a thick brown oil, which has an acid taste. 
The succinic acid is at first mixed with a 
quantity of oil. It may be made tolerably 
pure by diss living it in hot water, and putting 
upon the fibre a little cotton, previously 
moistened with oil ot amber: this substance 
retains most of the oil, and allows the solu- 
tion to pass clear. The acid is then to be 
crystallized bv a gentle evaporation ; and this 
process is to be repeated till the acid is suf- 
ficiently pure. Guyton Morveau has disco- 
vered that it may be made quite pure by dis- 
tilling off it a sufficient quantity of nitric acid, 
taking care not to employ a heat strong 
enough to sublime the succinic acid. 
2. The crystals of succinic acid are trans- 
parent, white, shining, and of a foliated tri- 
angular, prismatic form: they have an acid 
taste, but are not corrosive : they redden 
tincture of turnsole, but have little effect on 
that of violets. 
They sublime when exposed to a consider- 
able beat, but not at the heat of a water-bath. 
In a sand-bath they melt, and then sublime 
and condense in the upper part of the vessel; 
but the coal which remains shews that they 
are partly decomposed. 
3. One part of this acid dissolves in 96 
parts of water at the temperature of 50 a , ac- 
cording to Spieiman; in 24 parts at the tem- 
perature of 52° ; and in two parts of water at 
the temperature of 2 12®, according to Stockar 
de Neuforn ; but the greatest part crystal- 
lizes as the water cools. According to Roux, 
however, it still retains more of the acid than 
cold water is capable of dissolving. 
SUG 
Two hundred and forty grains' of boiling 
alcohol dissolve 177 of this acid; but crys- 
tals again shoot as the solution cools. 
4 The Compounds which this acid forms 
with alkalies, acids, and metallic oxides, hare 
received the name of succinals. Scarcely 
any of them have been examined with atten- 
tion. 
5. When combined with soda, it crystai- 
li> *« in four and six-sided prisms. W hen 
this salt is distilled in a retort, the succinic 
acid is completely decomposed. There pass 
over into the receiver an acid liquor, which 
is the acetic much diluted, and a quantity of 
blown oil. At the same time carbonic acid 
gas, and carbureted hydrogen gas, are disen- 
gaged, and there remain in the retort soda 
and charcoal. Hence it follows that this acid, 
like the others of the same class, is decom- 
posed by heat, and that it is composed of 
oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. 
6. The affinities of succinic acid, .accord- 
ing to Morveau, are as follows: 
Barytes, 
Lime, 
Potass, 
Soda, 
Ammonia, 
Magnesia, 
Alumina, 
Metallic oxides. 
SUCCINUM. See Amber. 
SUDORIFIC. See Materia Medica. 
SUFFERANCE. Tenant at sufferance is 
he who holds over his term at first lawfully 
granted. A person is tenant at sufferance 
who continues after his estate is ended, and 
wrongfully holds against another, &c. 1 Co. 
Inst. 57. 
Tenants holding over, after determination 
of their term, and after demand made in writ- 
ing to deliver possession, are rendered liable 
to pay double the yearly value. And tenants 
giving notice of their intention to quit, and 
not accordingly delivering up the possession 
at the time in such notice contained, are ren- 
dered liable to pay double rent. And it has 
been held, that under this act, the notice 
need not be in writing, and that the landlord 
may levy his double rent by distress. Bur. 
1603. 
SUGAR, which at present forms so im- 
portant an article in our food, seems to have 
been known at a very early period to the in- 
habitants of India and China. But Europe 
probably owes its acquaintance with it to the 
conquests of Alexander the Great. For ages 
after its introduction into the West, it was 
used only as a medicine ; but its consumption 
gradually increased : and during the time of 
the crusades, the Venetians, who brought it 
from the East, and distributed it to the north- 
ern parts of Europe, carried on a lucrative 
commerce with sugar. It was not till after 
the discovery of America, and the extensive 
cultivation of sugar in the West Indies, that 
its use in Europe, as an article of food, became 
general. 
Sugar was formerly manufactured in the 
southern parts of Europe ; but at present al- 
most all our sugar comes from the East and West 
Indies. The plant from which it is procured 
is the saccharum officinarum (see Saccha- 
rum), or sugar-cane. Other plants indeed 
contain it, but not in such abundance. In 
6 
IV 
North America, ’however, it is extracted irotn 
the aeer saccharin um, or sugar-maple. At- 
tempts have been lately made to extract it 
from the beet. 
1 The method of making sugar practised 
in Indoslanis exceedingly simple, and requires 
little or no expensive apparatus. 1 he soil 
chosen is a rich vegetable mould, in such a 
situation that it can be easily watered from 
a river. About tbe end of May, when the 
soil is reduced to the state of sott mud either 
by rain or artificial watering, slips ot tbe cane, 
containing one or two joints, are planted in 
rows about four feet from row to row, and 
eighteen inches asunder in the rows. W hen 
they have grown to the height ot two or three 
inches, the earth round them is loosened. 
In August small trenches are cut through the 
held to drain off the rain, if the season proves 
too rainy, and to water the plants if the sea- 
son proves too dry. From three to six 
canes spring from each slip set. When they 
are about three feet high, the lower leaves 
of each cane are carefully wrapt round it ; 
and then the whole belonging to each slip are 
tied to a strong bamboo eight or ten feet 
high, and stuck into the earth in the middle 
of them. They are cut in January and Fe- 
bruary, about 9 months after the time of plant- 
ing. They have now reached the height cfY 
eight or ten feet, and the naked cane is from 
an inch to an inch and a quarter in diameter. 
They have not tlowered. When this hap- 
pens, the juice loses much of its sweetness. 
The canes are now put through the rollers of a 
mill, and their juice collected into large iron 
boilers ; where it is boiled down smartly to a 
proper consistence, the scum being carelessly 
taken off. The tire is then withdrawn, and 
the liquid by cooling becomes thick. It is 
then stirred about with sticks till it begins to 
take the form of sugar ; when it is put in mats 
made of the leaves of the palmira-tree (bo- 
rassus stubelliformis), and the stirring conti- 
nued till it is cold. '1 his process yields a raw 
or powdered sugar ; but it is clammy, and apt 
to attract moisture from the atmosphere, be- 
cause the acids in the juice have not been re- 
moved. By the addition of quicklime to the 
juice, in the proportion of about three spoon- 
fulstoevery 14 gallons, the sugar loses this 
property. The impure sugar prepared by 
this method is called jagary. Every three 
quarts of juice, or every six pounds, yields 
about one pound of sugar. From an acre of 
ground about 5000 pounds of sugar, and con- 
sequently about 30,000 pounds of juice, are 
obtained. 
2. In the West India islands the raising of 
sugar is much more expensive, and the pro- 
duce much less, owing to the high price of la- 
bour ; or, which is the same thing, to the na- 
ture of the labourers, and to the inferiority of. 
tiie soil. The juice is put into large boilers, 
mixed with quicklime, and boiled to a proper 
consistency ; the scum in the mean time being 
carefully taken off. When it ceases to be 
ropy, it is drawn off into another vessel, where 
it is allowed to concrete, and the liquid and 
impure part called molasses to separate from 
it. The more completely this separation is 
allowed to be, the finer is the sugar. The su- 
gar thus obtained is in small hard grains of a 
brownish-white colour, and is imported to 
Europe under the name of raw sugar. 
3. Tn North America the farmers procure 
sugar for their own use by a still simpler pro- 
