T M N 
T JE N 
T A C 
©f one of those corps : so that those lines, 
both full and vacant, are composed of de- 
tachments equal in front and in defects; 
each has a phalanx of six, eight, or twelve 
thousand men. Our orders of battle, con- 
sequently, can be no more at most, than a 
kind of medium between those of Greece 
and Rome. 
Tactics, maritime, or manoeuvres at sea. 
With respect to naval tactics, or the art of 
fighting at sea, it is confessedly less antient 
than tactics on shore, or what is generally 
called land-service. Mankind were accus- 
tomed to contend for the possession of terri- 
tory long before they determined on, or even 
dreamed of, making the sea a theatre of war 
and bloodshed. 
Setting aside the many fabulous accounts 
which are extant concerning naval tactics, 
we shall remain satisfied with what has been 
transmitted to 11 s by the Roman writers of 
the fifth and sixth centuries of that republic. 
We shall there find specific details of the dif- 
ferent manoeuvres which were practised at 
sea during the Punic war. In those times 
naval armaments began to be regularly fitted 
out; ships of different forms and sizes were 
constructed; and certain offensive and defen- 
sive machines, that served as a species of 
artillery, were placed upon them. They had 
already been drawn out according to system ; 
being 'divided into certain proportions which 
were then called divisions, but are now nam- 
ed squadrons ; and the persons who com- 
manded them, exerted ail their skill and 
genius to gain advantages over their enemies, 
by .opportunely getting to windward, by seiz- 
ing the favourable occurrence of the tide, 
or by mooring in advantageous situations. 
At the battle of Actium, Augustus, finding 
himself inferior to Mark Anthony in the 
number of his ships, had the sagacity to draw 
up his line of battle along the entrance of the 
gulph of Ambracia, and thereby to make up 
for his -deficiency. This naval manoeuvre, 
as well as that of getting to windward of the 
enemy, in order to bear down upon him with 
more certainty and effect, exists to the pre- 
sent day. 
We act precisely upon the same princi- 
ples in both cases, by which the antients 
were governed ; with the additional advantage, 
in fighting to windward, of covering the ene- 
my’s line with smoke from the discharge of 
ordnance and fire-arms. The French call this 
being in possession of the closest line. 
In those times, ships were boarded much 
sooner than they are at present. Most en- 
gagements at sea are now determined by 
cannon-shot. Among the antients, when 
two ships endeavoured to board each other, 
the rowers drew in their oars, to prevent 
them from being broken in the shock. 
The manoeuvre which was practised on 
this occasion, was for the ship that got to 
windward of its adversary, to run upon its 
side, with the prow ; which being armed with 
a long sharp piece of iron, made so deep an 
impression in it, that the ship thus attacked, 
generally sunk. The voyages which were 
afterwards made on the ocean, rendered it 
necessary to construct ships that carried 
more sail, and were double-decked ; and 
since the invention of gunpowder, tiers of 
guns have been substituted in the room of 
sows of ears. 
On the decline and fall of the Roman em- 
pire, the Saracens got the ascendancy in na- 
val tactics. They took advantage of this su- 
periority, and extended their conquests on 
all sides. The whole extent of coast belong- 
ing to the Mediterranean, together with the 
adjacent islands, fell under their dominion. 
Mankind are indebted to them for consider- 
able improvements in naval tactics. 
It was only under Charlemagne, that the 
Europeans can be said to have paid any great 
attention to their navy. That monarch kept 
up a regular intercourse with the caliphs of 
the East; and having just grounds to appre- 
hend an invasion from the Normans, he con- 
structed vessels for the defence of his coasts. 
During the reign of the first French kings 
belonging to the third race, naval tactics 
were little attended to, on account of the 
small extent of maritime coast which France 
possessed at that period. It was only in the 
days of Louis the Younger, and of Louis 
surnamed the Saint, that we discover any 
traces of a considerable fleet, especially dur- 
ing the crusades. 
Under Charles the Fifth, and his succes- 
sor Charles the Sixth, the French got pos- 
session of several sea-ports, and had com- 
mand of a long line of coast. Yet neither 
they nor the English, with whom they were 
frequently at war, had at that period any 
thing like the fleets which are now fitted 
out. 
'l he discovery of America by Columbus, 
and the more lucrative possession of the East 
Indies, induced the principal states of Eu- 
rope to increase their naval establishments, 
for the purpose of settling colonies, and of 
bringing home, without the danger of moles- 
tation or piracy, the wealth and produce ot 
the eastern and western worlds. 
The French marine was far from being 
contemptible under Francis the First ; but 
it grew into considerable reputation during 
the administration of cardinal Richelieu, in 
the reign of Louis the Thirteenth ; and con- 
tinued so until the battle of La Hogue, which 
was so gloriously won by the English, under 
William the Third. From that epoch it be- 
gan to decline ; while the English, on the 
other hand, not only kept up the reputation 
they had acquired under Cromwell and his 
predecessors, but rendered themselves so 
thoroughly skilled in naval tactics, that they 
have remained masters of the sea to this 
day. See War, art of . 
TAENIA, the Tape-worm, in zoology, a 
genus of animals belonging to the class of 
vermes, and order of intestina. The body is 
long, depressed, and jointed like a chain, 
and contains a niu«ith and viscera in each 
joint. According to Gmelin, there are ninety- 
two species ; all which inhabit the intestines 
of various animals, particularly of quadru- 
peds. 
Seven species of taenia are peculiar to man : 
1. The viseeralis, which is inclosed in a ve- 
sicle, broad in the fore part, and pointed in 
the hinder part; inhabits the liver, the pla- 
centa uterina, and the sac which contains the 
superfluous fluid of dropsical persons. 2. 
Cellulosa, which is inclosed in a cartilaginous 
vesicle, inhabiting the cellular substance ofthe 
muscles ; is about an inch long, half an inch 
broad, and one-fourth of an inch thick, and 
is very tenacious of life. 3. The dentata, 
has a pointed head ; the large joints are 
705 
streaked transversely, and the small joints 
are all dilated; the osculum or opening in 
the middle of both margins is somew hat rais- 
ed. It is narrow, ten or twelve leet long, 
and broad in the fore parts ; its ovaria are 
not visible to the naked eye ; and the head 
underneath resembles a heart in shape. It 
inhabits the intestines. 4. The lata, is 
white, with joints very short and knotty 
in the middle; the oscumm is solitary. 
It is from eighteen to one hundred and 
twenty feet long ; its joints are streaked trans- 
versely; its ovaria are disposed like the 
petals of a rose.- 5. r l he vulgaris, has two 
lateral mouths in each joint ; it attaches itself 
so firmly to the intestines, that it can scarcely 
be removed by the most violent medicines ; 
it is slender, and has the appearance of being 
membranaceous ; it is somewhat pellucid, 
from ten to sixteen feet long, and about four 
lines and a half broad at one end. 6. The 
truttse, which chiefly inhabits the liver of the 
trout, but is also to be found in the intestines 
of the human species. 7. The solium, has a 
marginal mouth, one on each joint. 8. r I he 
ovilia, found in the liver and omentum of 
sheep. See Plate Nat. Hist. fig. 389. 
The structure and physiology of the txnia 
are curious, and it may be amusing as well as 
instructive to consider it with attention. The 
taenia appears destined to feed upon such 
juices of animals as are already animaHzed ; 
and is therefore most commonly found in the 
alimentary canal, and in the upper part, where 
there is the greatest abundance of chyle ; 
for chyle seems to be the natural food of 
the taenia. As it is thus supported by food 
which is already digested, it is destitute of 
the complicated organs of digestion. As the 
taenia solium is most frequent in this country, 
it may be proper to describe it more parti- 
cularly. 
It is from three to thirty feet long, some 
say sixty feet. It is composed of a head in 
which are a mouth adapted to drink up liuids, 
and an apparatus for giving the head a fixed 
situation. The body is composed of a great 
number of distinct pieces articulated toge- 
ther, each joint having an organ by which it 
attaches itself to the neighbouring part of the 
inner coat of the intestine. The joints near- 
est the head are always small, and they be- 
come gradually enlarged as they are farther 
removed from it ; but” towards the tail a few 
of the last joints again become diminish- 
ed in size. The extremity of the body is ter- 
minated by a small semicircular joint, which 
has no opening in it. 
The head of this animal is composed of the 
same kind of materials as the other parts of 
its body ; it lias a rounded opening at its ex- 
tremity, which is considered to be its mouth. 
This opening is continued by a short duct 
into two canals ; these canals pass round 
every joint of the animal’s body, and convey 
the aliment. Surrounding the opening of the 
mouth are placed a number of projecting 
radii, which are of a fibrous texture, whose 
direction is longitudinal. These radii appear 
to serve the purpose of tentacula for fixing 
the orifice of the mouth, as well as that of 
muscles to expand the cavity of the mouth, 
from their being inserted along the brim of 
that opening. After the rounded* extremity 
or head has been narrowed into the neck, 
the lower part becomes flatted, and has two 
small tubercles placed upo* each Ratted 
