WAR, 
considered as an art Its principles, founded 
on the sciences themselves, are tixed and cer- 
tain : but these branch out into such a pro- 
digious variety of ramifications, that men of 
extraordinary talents and genius only -have 
been able to excel in it. 
As two different elements constitute the 
theatre of its operations, war is naturally di- 
' ldcd into naval and military arrangements. 
Of naval warfare. 
the art of arranging squadrons or fleets in 
■oidei ot battle, and regulating their move- 
ments m such a manner as may be deemed 
best calculated for attacking, defending or 
retreating, to the greatest possible advantage, 
is termed naval tactics. 
. The antients seem to have excelled rather 
inland, than in sea engagements. On re- 
clining to the history of remote periods, we 
are perpetually reminded of the state of sa- 
yage nations at the present day the canoes 
indeed of the Iroquois would have availed 
but little, yet the war-boats of Otaheite might 
not then fa^ve appeared contemptible. 
I he Mediterranean was the early scene of 
naval exploits ; and galleys were the vessels 
originally used in engagements. These were 
propelled by the force of oars ; and the com- 
batants being made to approach, and some- 
tunes to board each other by means of Awing 
bridges, a battle at sea differed but little from 
a battle on land. But in progress of time, a 
superiority was attempted to be obtained by 
means of skill and management. The prows 
were armed with brazen spikes, or tridents, 
-which were so contrived as to pierce the ene- 
my’s vessels under water, and by letting in 
tlie sea, expose them to the danger of sinking, 
c iirrets were also erec ted between the poop 
and the forecastle, for the purpose of over- 
looking the foe, and annoying him by means 
of darts and slings. In process of time, other 
improvements took place, which we shall here 
■endeavour briefly to enumerate. 
1. The dolphin, which was a huge and 
massive piece of lead, formed into the shape 
■q! the fish horn which it had derived its name. 
1 his being perfectly suspended by blocks 
and ropes horn the mast-head or vard-arm, 
was allowed to drop, whenever an opportu- 
I'ity piesented itself; and penetrating through 
die bottom of a vessel slightly constructed, 
it of course, by its own specific gravity, made 
a passage for the entering waves; and thus 
-sometimes rendered even a retreat impos- 
sible. 
2 Another engine in use, consisted of a 
•scythe of iion, fixed at the top ofa long pole; 
ancl was employed for the purpose of cutting 
asunder the slings of the sail-yards, so as to 
incommode during action, and prevent escape 
-either then or afterwards. 
3. Spears, or maces, of an extraordinary 
length, were constructed so as to annoy at a 
considerable distance; and thus, although 
stationary, to serve tne purpose of a missile 
weapon. 
4. The naval battering-ram, mentioned by 
Vegetius, consisted ofa long beam, armed 
witn a head ot iron ; and being suspended to 
the main-mast, was employed to good effect 
against the sides of the galleys. 
5. A grappling-iron, which' seized hold of 
any pari ot the opposing vessel, and facili- 
tated the boarding of her. 
fi. 1 he last, and most formidable of all 
tai.ii machines, was the balista ; by which 
3 
large stones could be thrown to a great dis- 
tance, with a considerable' degree of certainty, 
and the most terrible effects. 
Having thus mentioned the engines made 
use of by the antients during naval conmbats, 
we next come to the disposition of their 
fleets. It was then, as now, considered a 
grea^ advantage to obtain the weather-gage ; 
and it was at the same time endeavoured to 
contrive so as to have the sun behind them- 
selves, while it shone directly in the faces of 
their enemies. Instead of manoeuvring by 
means of their sails, these were always low- 
ered previously to action ; and the’ prows 
being presented to the enemy, they advanced 
against each other by force of oars, and 
amidst the sodndof trumpet* After expend- 
ing their arrrows and javelins, recourse was 
at lengtlThad to the sword, so that courage 
alone decided the combat. 
The code of signals, like the symbol by 
which they were regulated, was simple in the 
extreme. It consisted sometimes of a gilded 
shield, and sometimes of a red garment, or 
banner. During the elevation of this, the 
battle continued ; its depression denoted de- 
feat ; and by its inclination either to one side 
or the other, an attack or retreat was pointed 
out. 
In ’respect to the line of battle, the half- 
moon was generally the favourite position. 
During one memorable sea-fight, the galleys 
of the Romans were ranged so as to represent 
a wedge in front, while the Carthaginians 
drew up their fleet in such a manner as to 
form a rectangle on two sides of a square, for 
the purpose of annoying and inclosing the 
flank of the enemy ; the former was the figure 
best. calculated for attack, the latter for de- 
fence. 
Notwithstanding the boasted greatness of 
fhe Roman people, yet when this country 
was invaded by Cesar, they appear to have 
obtained but little eminence in respect to 
naval affairs. A fleet on that occasion was 
not brought from the mouth of the Tiber, 
and the vessels built in Gaul exhibited no- 
thing formidable or ingenious either- in their 
management or construction. They must 
have been small and contemptible, hi point 
of size, for they were drawn up on the beach, 
near to where the town of Deal now stands, 
and fortified like the camp, by means of a 
ditcli and rampart. 
On the departure of these invaders, who, 
as usual, at once conquered and civilized the 
barbarous tribes among whom they settled, 
the situation of the Britons must have been 
truly distressing. Reduced perhaps to the 
coracles, or boats made of skins stretched on 
osiers, they were able to derive little or no 
benefit from the ocean that surrounded them. 
On the neighbouring continent, however, the 
boats had made a greater progress, or at least 
left a deeper impression ; for,' doubtless, the 
keels of the Saxons must have appeared 
formidable to men whose vessels were ribbed 
with twigs. 
r \ he wars with the Danes rendered some 
attention to maritime affairs necessary; and 
Alfred is represented as having encouraged 
and employed foreign artificers and mariners, 
by means of whom he constructed vessels of 
a superior size. With these he scoured the 
coasts, which were then infested by pirates, 
freebooters, and enemies of all sorts: and this j 
prince appears to have rescued his subjects 
train the incursions of pirates. 
At length the depredations of the northern 
states became formidable. From bein°- oc- 
casional visitors, for the sake of plunder! the 
Danes, and other nations bordering on the 
Baltic, began to think of settling in Britain, 
and in consequence of their power and num- 
bers, they were finally enabled to place one 
of their own sovereigns on the throne. After 
this, either by land or sea, all contention 
necessarily ceased. 
William the Norman obtained the crown 
by the gross mismanagement of Harold, iu 
respect to both naval and military affairs : 
for on one hand he had detached his squadron 
to the northern parts of the kingdom, instead 
•of keeping it on the southern shore to op- 
pose the enemy ; while on the other he put 
his whole stake to hazard on a single battle. 
The fleet conducted by the Conqueror to the 
coast of Sussex, (Sept. 28, 1066) consisted of 
no less than three hundred vessels ; but they 
appear to have been contemptible in point of 
size, and to have been but ill calculated to 
cope with an enemy. 
A long interval succeeded before any great 
progress, in respect to maritime affairs, oc- 
curred ; and the crusades, the wars between 
the kings and the barons, the acquisition of 
Ireland, and the incorporation of Wales, all 
took place before the foundation of a national 
navy was laid. But commerce, the true 
nursery of sailors and of a fleet, began to be 
attended to ; trade was no longer carried on 
solely by foreigners ; while the wool of Eng- 
land, after being woven and spun where tt 
had grown, was exported to distant countries, 
and brought back profitable returns. The 
ships of the cinque-ports now became formi- 
dable ; they were regularly lent out, when 
required, to the kings of England ; and assist- 
ed not only in their wars, but in the convey- 
ance of their troops to the continent. 
In 1217, Hubert de Burgh, governor of 
Dover-castle, after obtaining ihe weather- 
gage, defeated the French, in the first sea- 
light that ever took place between the Eng- 
lish and them. 
It was not until the time of Edward I. how- 
ever, that any -great exertions seem to have 
taken place. That prince fitted out three 
squadrons at the same time. 
In 1340, the English fleet appears to have 
been drawn up in two distinct lines, the 
larger ships being placed in the front, and the 
smaller in the rear, whence they were enabled 
to send fresh supplies of men, or otherwise 
grant their assistance, as occasion might 
serve. In this battle, which took place on 
the coast of Flanders, the French lost two 
hundred and thirty ships, and had two of 
their admirals slain. During the contest for 
the crown of France, the arms of England 
were eminently triumphant both by sea and 
land; but the wars between the rival houses 
ot York and Lancaster so completely occu- 
pied the hands and the hearts of the* nation, 
as to prevent any attention to foreign af- 
fairs. 
At length Hen. ATI. a wise and able prince, 
began to build ships of war, one of which 
cost him upwards of 1 4000/. His son, Henry 
VIII. notwithstanding those odious vices 
which rendered his memory odious, seems to 
have conceived a just notion of the true in- 
terests of the nation, in respect to maritime 
