208 
Greenberg 
and others have observed, some things are 
more easily learned than other by a par- 
ticular species. Mayr (1974) regards this 
as a situation reflecting the ease with which 
a genetic program manifesting itself in be- 
havior may be modified and refers to more 
or less “open” or “closed” genetic programs. 
An “open” program is highly susceptible to 
ontogenetic experiential influences, whereas 
one which is “closed” is not subject to sub- 
sequent modification — it is “fixed.” 
Laboratory and Field Perspectives Combined 
From the ethological perspective, experi- 
ments are regarded as most useful when ani- 
mals are unencumbered by apparatus, una- 
affected by handling, not subject to un- 
natural constraints, and free to interact with 
their environment and with each other. A 
satisfactory research method is one that pro- 
vides a simulation of a field habitat under 
laboratory control. The use of ecologically 
relevant cues in learning paradigms has been 
effectively utilized by Brattstrom (1974) and 
others (Brattstrom, this volume). 
For conducting neuroethological experi- 
ments on display behavior in lizards (Green- 
berg et al, 1976; Greenberg, 1977&), my first 
concern has been to obtain behavior inven- 
tories and ethograms for lizards that are 
likely subjects for laboratory experiments. 
To do this, I have tried to create as complex 
a habitat as possible to provide lizards with 
a variety of natural stimuli and behavioral 
options. Such habitats are adjusted until 
benchmark aspects of the animal’s behavior 
estimated from field observations and the 
literature are approximated. Then, types of 
behavior that are less amenable to field study 
can be monitored (Figs. 2, 3). 
In this way, I have developed preliminary 
behavior inventories and ethograms of the 
blue spiny lizard, Sceloporus cyanogenys 
(1973a, 1977a) ; the rainbow lizard, Agama 
agama; and the green anole, Anolis caro- 
linensis. 
Once contextual constraints on behavioral 
patterns are revealed from observations 
Figure 2. A complex laboratory habitat and its 
microhabitats. In an attempt to elicit natural be- 
havorial patterns, a variety of perches and sub- 
strates, crevices, and feeding sites are provided. 
Diverse prey forms are provided on an irregular 
schedule in order to compel lizards to maintain a 
natural level of alertness. 
O 25 WATT INCANDESCENT 
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Figure 3. A complex laboratory habitat and its 
photothermal regimen. The diversity of thermal 
levels simultaneously available is indicated above. 
made on subjects in complex habitats, differ- 
ent kinds of behavior may be teased out by 
providing the relevant stimuli in relatively 
restricted habitats which are more appro- 
priate for tests on experimentaly treated 
animals. 
An effective way of doing this is to obtain 
a preliminary ethogram (Fig. 1) and then 
to concentrate on a specific portion of it. 
