6 A B Y 
becomes of course common to this whole fa- 
mily or class of animals, and is therefore called 
a general, universal, or abstract idea. 
Abstract is an epithet given to several 
"ther things, on account of their purity or 
universality ; thus, we say abstract numbers, 
abstract mathematics, & c. 
_ ABSFRACTI, a name given to a sect of 
Lutherans, who asserted that Christ was to be 
adored not only in the concrete, as the son of 
God, but that his flesh in the abstract was an 
object of adoration. 
ABS FRACTION, in logic, that operation 
of the mind whereby it forms abstract ideas. 
According to Mr. Locke, abstraction is per- 
formed three ways. First, when the mind 
considers any one part of a thing by itself, 
without attending to the whole ; as the arm, 
leg, &C. of a man’s body. Secondly, by con- 
sidering the mode of a substance, without tak- 
ing in the. idea of the substance itself: thus, 
geometricians consider the properties of lines, 
or the length of bodies, without attending to 
their breadth or depth. Thirdly, by gene- 
lalizing our ideas in the manner mentioned 
under Abstract idea. 
1 his doctrine, however, of abstraction, is 
denied by Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, who 
owns that he can imagine a man with two 
heads, or the upper part of a man joined to 
the body of a horse ; “ nay,” adds he, “ I can 
consider the hand, the eye, the nose, each by 
itself, abstracted or separate from the rest of 
the body : but then, whatever hand or eye I 
imagine, it must have some particular shape 
and colour ; likewise the idea of a man that I 
frame to myself, must be either of a white or 
a black, or a tawny, a straight or a crooked, 
a tall or a low, or a middle-sized man. Nei- 
ther can I, by any effort of thought, conceive 
an absolutely abstracted idea of motion, for 
instance, distinct from the body moving, and 
which is neither swift nor slow, curvilinear 
nor rectilinear ; and the like may be said of 
all abstract ideas whatsoever.” 
Abstraction, in chemistry, is the eva- 
porating or drawing off, by means of heat, 
one part of a compound from the other. If 
the part abstracted is collected, it is called 
distillation or sublimation, according as the 
process is wet or dry. 
A BUG GO, Abocco, or Abocchi, a 
weight used in the kingdom of Pegu, equal to 
twelve teccalis and a half. Two abuccos make 
an agiro, or giro ; two girl make half a biza, 
which weighs 100 heccalis (2 pounds 5 ounces) 
the heavy weight, or 3 pounds 9 ounces light 
weighty of Venice. See Weight. 
ABUNDANT numbers, those whose ali- 
quot parts added together make more than 
the whole number : thus the parts of 20 make 
22, viz. 1, 2, 4, 5, and 10. 
ABYSS has been used by some philoso- 
phers, particularly Dr. Woodward, to denote 
a vast cavity filled with water, which they 
supposed (but with little argument) to exist 
in the centre of the earth. Conformably with 
this idea, it has been imagined by some wri- 
ters that there is a communication between 
the Caspian sea and the ocean, by means of 
a subterranean abyss ; and to this it is attri- 
buted that the Caspian sea does not overflow, 
notwithstanding the number of large rivers 
that run into it, of which Kempfer reckons 
fifty in the extent of sixty miles. But the 
daily evaporation is by others thought suffi- 
cient to account for this fact. 
A C A 
Abyss is also used for several other things, 
as the cavernous bowels of a mountain, or 
hell, dr the bottomless pit, the centre of an 
escutcheon, a gulph, &c. 
ABYSSINIAN church, that established in 
the empire of Abyssinia. It makes but a 
branch of the Cophts or Jacobites, a sect who 
admit only one nature in Jesus Christ. 
ACACIA, in botany, a name applied, but 
erroneously, to several sorts of shrubs and 
trees. See’GuiLANDiA, Guiacum, Mimosa, 
Poinciena, and Spartium. 
Acacia, in the materia medica of the an- 
cients, a gum made from the Egyptian thorn, 
and thought to be the same as our gum- 
arabic. 
Acacia Germanica, an inspissated juice, 
made of wild sloes, hardly ripe. The true 
acacia is said to be very scarce in the shops, 
where the German acacia is used in its stead, 
both being powerful astringents, and conse- 
quently good in haemorrhages, and all kinds 
of fluxes. 
Acacia, Akakia, a roll or bag represent- 
ed on the medals of the Greek and Roman 
emperors : some think it is only a handker- 
chief, which they used as a signal ; others take 
it for a volume, or roll of memorandums or 
petitions ; and finally, others suppose it to be 
a purple bag filled with earth, to remind the 
prince of his mortality. 
ACACIANS, the name of several sects of 
heretics, some of whom maintained that the 
Son was only of a like, not the same substance 
with the Father ; and others, that he was not 
only of a distinct, but also of a dissimilar sub- 
stance. 
ACADEMIC, or Academician, a mem- 
ber of some academy. 
Academics is a term more particularly 
used for a sect of ancient philosophers, the 
followers of Socrates and Plato, who main- 
tained that all things were uncertain, and con- 
sequently that men ought to doubt of every 
thing. They even went so far as to doubt 
whether or not tlmv ought to doubt, it being 
a received maxim among them, se nil scire, 
ne hoc quidem, quod nihil sciunt. 
Of this sect, however, Cicero, who was an 
academic philosopher himself, gives a more 
favourable account. He tells us, that all the 
difference between the academics, and those 
who imagined themselves possessed of the 
knowledge of things, consisted in this : that 
the latter were fully persuaded of the truth of 
their opinions ; whereas the former held many 
things to be only probable, which might very 
well serve to regulate their conduct, though 
they could not positively assert the certainty 
of them. “ In this,” says he, “ we have 
greatly the advantage of the dogmatists, as 
being more disengaged, more unbiassed, and 
at full liberty to determine as our judgment 
shall direct. But the generality of mankind, 
I know not how, are fond of error, and 
choose rather to defend with the utmost ob- 
stinacy the opinion they have once embraced, 
than with candour and impartiality examine 
which sentiments are most agreeable to 
truth.” 
ACADEMY, in Grecian antiquity, a large 
villa in one of the suburbs of Athens, where 
the sect of philosophers called Academics held 
their assemblies. It took its name from Aca- 
demus or Ecademus, a citizen of Athens, as 
our modern academies take theirs from it. 
Academy was also used metaphorically. 
A C A 
to denote the sect of academic philoso- 
phers. 
Academy, in a modern sense, signifies a 
. society of learned men, established for the 
improvement of arts or sciences. Hence, 
Academies of antiquity, are those de- 
signed for the illustration of whatever regards 
antiquity ; as medals, coins, inscriptions, &c. 
There are several ocademies of this kinl in 
different parts of the world, as at Upsal in 
Sweden, at Paris, and at London. Tlese 
two last are called the academy of inscrip- 
tions and belles-lettres, and the’ antiquarian 
society. 
Academies of architecture. See Aca- 
demies of Painting, infra. 
Academies of belles-lettres, those chiefly 
designed for the cultivation of eloquence and 
poetry . Besides the academy of belles-lettres 
at Paris, and one at Caen, there are several 
in Italy, viz. one at Florence, and two at 
Rome. 
Academies chirurgical, those establisaed 
for the improvement of surgery. 
Academies cosmograpfiical, those which 
make geography and astronomy the chief ob- 
jects of their researches. Such is that called 
the Argonauts, at Venice. 
Academies of dancing. Of this kind 
there was one instituted by Louis XIV. with 
ample privileges worthy of the nation ! 
Academies ecclesiastical, those which 
employ their studies in illustrating the doc- 
trines, discipline, ceremonies, &c. that ob- 
tained in each age of the church. Such is 
that of Bologna. 
Academies historical, those erected for 
the improvement of history. Such are those 
at Lisbon and Tubingen. 
Academies of languages, those establish- 
ed in many parts of Europe, for refining and 
ascertaining the language of each country ; 
thus the Paris academy was designed to il- 
lustrate and polish the "French, that of Ma- 
drid the Spanish or Castilian, &c. But be- 
sides these, there are others in Italy, Ger- 
many, &c. 
Academies of law: such are those of Bo- 
logna and Beryta. 
Academies medical, those instituted with 
a view to promote medical knowledge and 
improvements. Such is that of the Naturce 
Curiosorum, in Germany, and those of Ve- 
nice, Geneva, Palermo, &c. to which some 
add the colleges of physicians at London and 
Edinburgh. 
Academies musical. These are frequent 
in most parts of Europe, but more especially 
in France and Italy. 
Academies of painting, sculpture, and 
architecture. There is one of these at Paris, 
and another at Rome. 
The royal Academy of arts was instituted 
iii London for the encouragement of design- 
ing, painting, sculpture, &e. in the year 
1768. It has for its patron the king, and is 
under the direction of forty artists of the first 
rank in their profession. It furnishes living 
models to draw and paint after. Nine of the 
academicians are annually elected to attend 
and set the figures, to examine the perform- 
ances of the students, and to give them the 
necessary instructions. The admission to this 
academy is free to all students qualified to 
reap advantage from the studies cultivated in 
it. There are professors of painting, archi- 
tecture, anatomy, and perspective, who an- 
