S3 6 
/"Galoi ic 
Oxygen 
Azote 
Sulphur 
Phosphorus 
.02 
75 1 
in 
Carbon 
The combination of hydrogen with 
forms hydrogen gas 
— water 
— ammonia, or volatile 
alkali 
— the base of sulphurated 
hydrogen gas 
• — the base ot phosphoriz- 
ed hydrogen gas 
r — the base ot carbonated 
hydrogen gas 
— lixed and volatile oils 
— the radicals of the ve- 
. getable acids 
) and when azote and 
phosphorus are join- 
ed with it 
— the radicals of the ani- 
L mal kingdom. 
ty carbon. Carbon appears to be a simple 
■substance, for hitherto it has not been pos- 
SI 3 e to decompose it. Modern experiments 
seem to prove that it* exists completely form- 
ed in vegetables, in which it is combined 
with hy drogen, and sometimes with azote 
and with phosphorus ; and that it assists to 
iorm in them compound radicals, which are 
afterwards carried to the state of oxides or 
ol acids, according to the proportion ol oxy- 
gen united with them. To obtain the caibon 
contained in animal or vegetable matters, 
nothing is necessary but to expose them, 
hrst to a moderate and then to a very strong 
degree of heat, in order to decompose the 
last portions ot water, which the charcoal 
strongly retains. In these operations che- 
mists employ retorts of earthenware or 
porcelain, into which the combustible mat- 
ters are introduced; and they are exposed to 
a strong heat in a reverberating furnace. 
The heat converts those substances which 
are susceptible of it into gas ; and tire carbon, 
which is more fixed, remains combined with 
a little earth and some fixed salts. 
In the arts, the carbonization of wood is 
effected by a simpler and cheaper process. 
The wood is cut into pieces nearly of the 
same size and length ; these pieces are dis- 
posed in heaps, and are covered with earth, 
m such a manner as to prevent all communi- 
cation with the air, except what is necessary 
to make the wood burn, and to drive off the 
oil and water formed during the combustion ; 
they are then kindled, and when they have 
burnt a sufficient time, the lire is extingufih- 
ed by stopping the holes which served to 
introduce the air. 
There are two methods of analysing char- 
coal, viz. 1st, By its combustion in oxygen 
gas: 2d, Its oxygenation by the nitric acid. 
In both cases it is converted into carbonic 
acid, and it leaves a residuum of lime, potash, 
and some neutral salts. It is not yet fully 
ascertained whether the potash exists in char- 
coal before its combustion. 
Exp. Under a bell glass A, (fig. 23.) filled 
with oxygen gas, and inverted over mercu- 
ry in the trough BC, introduce some char- 
coal in the saucer D. The charcoal must be 
wrapped in cotton ; having also a small par- 
ticle of phosphorus in it, in order that the, 
whole may take fire upon the Introduction of 
the heated wire II G I through the mercury. 
The charcoal will # then burn with great bril- 
liancy. It will be found that to saturate 28 
CHEMISTRY. 
parts of carbon with oxygen, 72 parts of the 
latter are required, and lie aeriiorm acid 
produced is equal in weight to the sum of 
the weight of the carbon and ot the oxygen. 
Exp. Very pure carbon may be thus p ra- 
ce red : Put into a glass tube z (tig. 24.), 
dosed at one of its extremities, and re- 
duced to a capillary bore at the other, one 
part of phosphorus ; and above it, at the dis- 
tance oi several inches, five parts of carbo- 
nate of lime, reduced to powder. Place the 
tube in the middle of the furnace F, so that 
the coals can heat the carbonate of lime only, 
the part of the tube containing the phos- 
phorus being in the ash-hole. When the 
lime is brought to a red heat, the tube is to 
be raised, that the phosphorus may burn; 
the phosphorus lays hold of the oxygen of 
the carbonic acid, and becomes phosphoric 
acid ; which unites to the lime, and forms 
phosphate of lime, while the carbon remains 
by itself. 
The combination of carbon not oxyge- 
nated with 
Oxygen forms carbonic oxide and carbo- 
nic acid 
Hydrogen — the carbono-hydrous radical, 
fixed and volatile oils 
Iron - — carburet of iron, or plumbago 
Zinc — carburet of zinc. 
The combination of sulphur not oxygen- 
ated with * ° 
Degrees of 
oxygen- 
ation. 
1, forms oxide of sulphur, or soft 
Of sulphur. Sulphur is one of those com- 
bustible substances which have the greatest 
tendency to combination. At the common 
temperature of the atmosphere it is concrete; 
and it does not liquefy but at a heat several 
degrees higher than that of boiling water. 
It is tounrf completely formed, and almost in 
its utmost degree of purity, in volcanic pro- 
ductions. It is found also, and much oftener, 
in the state of sulphuric acid, in argil, gvp- 
sum, &x. 
To extract the sulphur of the sulphuric 
acid united to these substances, it must be 
deprived of its oxygen. This may be effect- 
ed by combining it at a red heat with carbon: 
the carbon lakes from it its oxygen, and 
thence is' formed carbonic acid, which com- 
bining with caloric, disengages itself in the 
state of gas: the i\ suit then is a sulphuret, 
which may be decomposed by an acid : the 
acid unites to the base of the sulphuret, and 
the sulphur is precipitated. 
Ex. We may here shew the nature of sub- 
limation : Put some lumps of sulphur into the 
vessel A (tig. 25.), to which the receiver B is 
adapted and luted round. A is put on a sand- 
bath, made hot by the furnace C ; the sul- 
phur melts, a smoke rises which is deposited 
in B in the form of vegetation, and hence it 
has been called flowers ot sulphur. In this 
way sulphur may be combined with alcohol. 
Put pounded sulphur into a glass retort A 
(tig. 2G.), suspend within it the bottle B contain- 
ing alcohol, then put on the cover C, and ad- 
just the beak x to the mattrass z ; lute the 
joinings, and heat the retort by the furnace F. 
Pile sulphur will lie sublimed, and the alco- 
hol will be volatilized. In this state the bo- 
dies meet, the alcohol dissolves the sulphur, 
and a liquor will be obtained in 2 slightly co- 
loured, which is sulphurated alcohol.’ To 
prove that sulphur is held in combination by 
the alcohol, add to it some distilled water, and 
the sulphur will be precipitated. 
Oxygen 
( 
^2, — sulphurous acid 
C 3, — sulphuric acid 
sulphur 
Plydrogen — 
Copper — 
Iron — 
Lead — 
Mercury — . 
Zinc — 
Antimony — . 
Arsenic . — 
Potash — 
Soda 
(the base of sulphurated 
( hydrogen gas 
(sulphuret of copper, or 
\ pyrites of copper 
( sulphuret of fron, or py- 
l rites of iron 
( sulphuret of lead, or ga- 
I lena 3 
C sulphuret of mercury/ or 
-? ethiops mineral ; dnna- 
£ bar 
( sulphuret of zinc, or 
( blende. 
( sulphuret of antimony, or 
\ crude antimony 
( sulphuret of arsenic, or 
( orpiment ; realgar 
/ sulphuret of potash, or li- 
3 ver of sulphur with a 
j base of fixed vegetable 
( alkali 
( sulphuret of soda, or liver 
2 of sulphur with a base 
( of fixed mineral alkali 
J sulphuret of lime, or liver 
of sulphur with a cal- 
careous base 
f sulphuret of magnesia, or 
liver of sulphur with a 
( base of magnesia 
( sulphuret of barytes, or 
< liver of sulphur with a 
( base of ponderous earth 
( sulphuret of ammonia, or 
-j volatile liver of sulphur ; 
(. fuming liquor of Boyle* i 
Of Phosphorus. — Phosphorus is a simple j 
combustible substance, tor no experiment 
gives us reason to think that it can be decom- 
posed. It was not known to the old che- i 
mists ; and it was discovered in 1667 by a 
German, named Brandt, who made a mys- ! 
tery of his process. A short time after f 
Brandt’s secret was discovered by Kunckel, 
who published the process, and on that ac- 
count it was called Kunckel’s phosphorus. 
It was from urine alone that this phospho- 
rus was first extracted ; and though the me- ] 
thod was described, particularly by Hom- 
berg,. in the Memoirs of the Academy of 
Sciences for 1722, the English, for a long ! 
time, supplied this article to all Europe, it 
was not made in France till 1737, when it 
was prepared for the first time in the Bota- 
nical Garden, in the presence of commission- 
ers appointed by the Academy of Sciences. 
At present it is extracted by a more con- ; 
venient and economical process, from the ’ 
bones of animals, which are real phosphate 
ot lime. The simplest method, according to 
Galin, Scheele, Kouelle, &c. is to calcine 
the bones of full-grown animals until they j 
are almost entirely white ; to pound and silt 
them, and then to pour over them sulphuric 
acid diluted with water.; but less than is ne- 
cessary for dissolving the whole matter. 
Lime 
Magnesia 
Barytes 
Ammonia 
