CHEMISTRY. 
intoxicating quality. Wine is made in this 
matter from the juice of the grape ; if the 
fermentation is checked when at its height, 
by excluding the air, the wine begins to fer- 
ment anew, and effervesce when again ex- 
posed to it. The sparkling wines, as cham- 
paign, are prepared in this manner, and 
hence should be considered as imperfect 
wines. Not only the juice of the grape, but 
all mucilaginous substances containing sugar, 
are capable of the vinous fermentation. 
To understand these phenomena it must 
be observed that alcohol, which is the es- 
sence of a vinous fluid, consists of the same 
principles as sugar, only combined in different 
proportions. Alcohol contains more hydro- 
gen and less carbon and oxygen. In the pro- 
cess of fermentation, therefore, a considerable 
part of the oxygen combines with the carbon 
which the sacciiarine fluid contains. These 
two form the carbonic acid gas which is ex- 
pelled in the process; and the quantities of 
these being lessened, and the hydrogen left 
behind, this very essential change is effected 
in the liquor. 
To prepare vinous liquors from grain or 
corn, they are converted into malt: by this 
process, the gluten which forms the germ is 
separated, and the fecula appears to be con- 
verted into sugar by the germination of the 
seed. From malt, beer is made by extrac- 
tion and fermentation. If wine, beer, or any 
other fermented liquor, is distilled, a fluid is 
obtained which is colourless, of a strong 
heating taste, a penetrating odour, and an 
intoxicating property. This is alcohol, ar- 
dent spirit, or spirit of wine. In this state it 
contains a quantity of water. If this alcohol 
is re-distilled, and reduced to two-thirds, it 
is obtained verv pure, and is called rectified 
alcohol. Alcohol is very inflammable and 
volatile ; it dissolves resins, essential oil 
camphor, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. It is 
composed of hydrogen, carbon, and a small 
quantity of oxygen. Strong acids and alcohol 
have a considerable re-action on each other ; 
and this produces ether, which is a very vo- 
latile, inflammable, odorous fluid. Nitric 
acid with alcohol produces nitric aether, and 
sulphuric acid with alcohol produces sul- 
phuric afther. See Fermentation. 
Acetous fermentation . — When wine, or any 
fermented or vinous liquor, is exposed to a 
heat, from 75° to 85° Fahrenheit, and access 
of air is permitted, the fluid becomes turbid 
and a new change of principles takes place 
It loses its taste and smell, it becomes sour, 
and is converted into vinegar. Though 
vinegar is chiefly prepared from fluids which 
have undergone the vinous fermentation, yet 
this is not necessary to the production of 
vinegar; for simple mucilage is capable of 
passing into the state of acetous fermenta 
tion. When the saccharine principle predo 
m mates in any substance exposed to the ne 
cessary conditions of fermentation, alcohol is 
produced. When mucilage is most abundant 
vinegar or acetous acid is ihe product ; and 
when gluten is most predominant, ammonia 
will be discovered, and putrefaction or the 
putrid fermentation will take place. 
The process of the acetous fermentation is 
still more simple than that of the vinous, and 
consists merely in the fluid imbibing the oxy- 
gen from the atmosphere, for which it has a 
strong attraction ; and by the access of which 
to the point of saturation, it is converted into 
an acid. 
Putrid fermentation. — This is the last 
change, orlinal decomposition, ot vegetables. 
Without moisture, heat, and a due access of 
air, this does not take place. In this state of 
fermentations ammonia is formed, accompa- 
nied by a very' offensive smell. Vegetables 
which contain’albunflnous matter and gluten, 
are most liable to putrefaction. 
Animal substances. — The constituent prin- 
ciples of animal substances are nearly the 
same with ihose of vegetables; but the 
former contain much more nitrogen and 
phosphorus, and the latter more carbon and 
lvdrogen. 
‘ The proximate constituent parts of animal 
substances, or simple combinations of the 
above-mentioned radicals, are the following: 
1. Gelatine, or animal jelly, is very gene- 
rally dispersed through ail the parts of ani- 
mals, even in bones, but exists in the greatest 
quantity in the tendons, membranes, and the 
skill. It is a mucous substance, very soluble 
in warm water, but not in alcohol ; insipid, 
and without smell ; when cold, it congeals to 
cohesive, tremulous substance. It forms 
the basis of soups, broths, &c. and imparts to 
them their nutritious qualities. V hen eva- 
porated to dryness, it forms portable soup, 
glue, isinglass, &c. The union of this sub- 
stance in the skin with tannin constitutes 
leather. 
2. Fibrin, or animal fibre, forms the basis 
of the muscular, or fleshy parts of animals. 
It is fibrous in its structure, transparent, in- 
soluble in water and alcohol except by a 
long-continued heat in a digester. It coagu- 
lates by the mere contact of air, and in a 
temperature of 120°, in which it differs from 
albumen, and also by its insolubility in cold 
liquid ammonia. It is soluble in acids and 
alkalis; by its union with the latter soap is 
formed. Chaptal employed this property to 
make soap from wool. With nitric acid it 
affords more nitrogen gas than any other sub- 
stance. Pure fibrin may be obtained by 
washing away all the other parts from mus- 
cular fibre. It is very analogous to vegetable 
gluten. 
3. Albumen is the principal constituent 
part of the serum of blood, and is also called 
coagulable lymph. The white of eggs con- 
sists almost entirely of albumen. It is inso- 
luble in hot or cold water, oils, or alcohol ; 
and coagulates by a heat of 160° Fahrenheit, 
into a white solid mass, also by acids, oxyds, 
and alcqhol. The coagulum is only soluble 
in alkalis. See Albumen. 
4. Animal oil differs from the vegetable 
oils, in being generally solid at the tempera- 
ture of the atmosphere, but is very similar to 
them in its other properties. It contains 
more oxygen, and also sebacic acid. Among 
animal oils may be ranked fat r tallow, lard, 
suet, butter, &c. Fish oil is generally more 
liquid than other animal oils. Spermaceti is 
an animal oil, found in the head of a species 
of whale. Animal fibre may be converted 
into a substance resembling spermaceti, by 
treatment with the nitric acid, and also by 
exposing it to a current of water for several 
months. 
5. Bones consist chiefly of phosphate of 
lime, with carbonate of lime and gelatine. 
6. Blood, when suffered to rest, separates 
into two parts; the one a coagulum -or -clot, 
N x 2 
347 
called Ihe cfSssamenttim ; the other a fluid 
called the serum. The crassamentum con- 
sists of fibrin, mixed with albumen or lymph, 
and colouring matter. Jibe fibrin may.be 
separated from the albumen and colouring 
part, by washing. The colouring part con- 
tains much iron, in an oxydated state, owing 
to the oxygen it receives in its passage 
through the lungs. 1 lie serum consists of 
albumen and gelatine, mixed with muriate 
and carbonate of soda, and phosphate ot 
lime. It is coagulable by heat, the acids, 
and alcohol. 
7. Milk, if suffered to rest, throws up oil 
its surface a butyraceotis oil, cream. It the 
remaining skimmed-milk is suffered to. re- 
main, it becomes sour, and separates into 
two parts; a curd, which is chiefly albumen ; 
and whey, which is nearly analogous to sc- 
rum, mixed with sugar and lactic acid. It 
may be made to pass into the vinous fermen- 
tation. Milk may be separated into its con- 
stituent parts, by the addition ot acids and 
neutral salts. By the addition of rennet 
(which is the stomach of a calf, in which the 
milk has soured), milk is separated into 
curd and whey. Of the former cheese is 
made, hv pressing and drying it. By agitat- 
ing milk, the oily part of the cream is sepa- 
rated in a more solid form, constituting but- 
ter. This is also prepared by agitating the 
cream alone, \\ Inch separates the butter from 
the rest of the milk which remains, called 
butter-milk. 
8. Nails, horns, hoofs, and quills, resemble 
coagulated albumen. 
The animal acids and phosphorus have 
been already described. Many other animal 
substances, such as bile, urine, saliva, &c. 
are very complicated, and but imperfectly 
known. 
Of putrefaction . — Every animal body, 
when deprived of life, and exposed to the air, 
undergoes a decomposition, or resolution of 
its parts. Its colour becomes pale, then 
changes to blue and green ; the parts become 
soft, and send out a fetid smell, arising from 
the disengagement of a very noxious gas. 
The organization is destroyed, and the con- 
stituent parts of the animal substance form 
new arrangements, and are chiefly resolved 
into the gaseous state. What remains is a 
dry powder, consisting of a mixture of earths 
and charcoal. 
Table I. Of compound oxvdable and aciui* 
liable bases. 
Names of the radicals 
('Tartaric 
| Malic 
Oxvdable or acid:- Citric 
liable hydro-car- Oxalic 
bonous or carbo- Acetic 
no-hydrOus radi-2 Succinic 
cals from the ve- Benzoic 
getalfle kingdom. Camphoric 
Gallic 
Suberic 
Oxydable or acidi-q r 
liable radicals | ^ lactic 
from the; animal i Sebacic 
kingdom, which p • 
mostly contain “ dc 
azote. J 
Carbono-hydrous q 
radical from the t Mcl]Uia 
mineral king- f 
dom. J 
Radicals, 
