Until the student, however, has imbibed a 
iroper relish for beautiful proportions, and 
jeen well-grounded in their principles, he 
should not proceed to draw from living mo- 
dels. 
In drawing from plaister casts, a good deal 
depends upon choosing a proper view, and 
placing the model properly with regard to 
the light, which should always come in ob- 
liquely from above, as it generally does in the 
day-time. If a candle is used, it should be 
so high as to cast the light downwards upon 
the model. The light should only come 
[from one part, as cross-lights will distract and 
’spoil the shadows. 
I Attitude and action of the muscles. — The 
general knowledge of the bones and muscles 
! having been acquired by the study of anato- 
jiny, it remains that the draughtsman be 
careful not to represent any appearance of 
them contradictory to the attitude or the 
figure, and the exertion required by it. This 
! demands, in fact, nothing more than a strict 
attention to nature, who never directs ,a 
[muscle to act, unless it is necessary to the 
; purpose designed. In this attention the 
Creek statuaries have particularly excelled. 
[Regard is also to be had to the difference of 
character in the person represented, as whe- 
ther a man be .strong or weak, and likewise 
to sex, age, &c. 
The muscles in general do not appear in 
the female so strongly as in the male. Mo 
| action of a woman, although she exert her 
utmost strength, will occasion such swellings 
of the muscles as appear in men ; the greater 
, quantity of fat, which lies under the skin of 
i women, clothing the muscles so generally, 
|as to prevent every such appearance. 
In order to represent properly and con- 
sistently the attitude or action of the figure, 
It is of the highest importance to attend to 
the parts or limbs employed in performing 
the action and producing the attitude. For 
instance, if the figure is standing, the foot 
imust be placed in a right line, or perpendi- 
I cular to (lie trunk or bulk of the body, where 
the centre of gravity may be supposed to fall. 
■This centre is determined by the heel ; or, if 
the figure is upon tiptoe, then the ball of the 
great toe is in the centre. The muscles of 
the leg which supports the body ought to be 
f swelled, and their tendons drawn more to an 
i extension than those of the other leg, which 
is only placed so as to receive the weight of 
I the body towards that way to which the ac- 
| tion inclines it. For example, suppose a man 
l striking with a club at any thing before him 
j towards the left side; then let his right leg be 
] placed so as to receive the whole weight of 
the body, and the left loosely touching the 
ground with its toes. Here the external 
‘ muscles of the right leg ought to be express- 
| ed very strongly, but those of the left scarcely 
more than if it was in some sedentary pos- 
1 tore, except that, in the present case, the foot 
i being extended, the muscles which compose 
the calf of the leg arc in action, and appear 
I very strong. It is not meant that all the 
muscles of the right leg, which supports the 
weight of the body, ought to be expressed 
very strong or equally swelled, but those 
principally which are most concerned in the 
action or posture that the leg is then in. For 
example, if the leg or tibia is extended, then 
the extending muscles placed on the thigh 
are most swelled; if it is bent, then the 
DRAWING. 
bending muscles and their tendons appear 
most. The like may be observed ot the whole 
body in general when it is put into vigorous 
action. The Greek statue of Laocoon fur- 
nishes an example of this muscular appear- 
ance through the, whole; but in the Anti- 
nous Apollo, and other figures disposed in 
postures where no considerable actions are 
designed,’ the muscles are expressed more 
faintly. 
It is of great importance to an artist to be 
acquainted with the most obvious effects ot 
the action of those muscles whicii are placed 
externally on the human body, tor these 
vary with every alteration of posture, and 
are variously enlarged and changed in their 
appearance by every effort that is dictated 
by the will. 
The following are frequently given as a few 
instances of the natural actions of the 
muscles, and will serve to direct the student 
to a fuller investigation of the subject. 
Ejects of the exertions of the muscles . — 
If either of the mastoid muscles act, the head 
is turned to the contrary side, and the muscle 
which performs that action appears very 
plain under the skin. If the arms are lifted 
up, the deltoid muscles placed on the shoul- 
ders, which perform that action, swell, and 
make the extremities of the spines of the 
shoulder-blades, called the tops of the shoul- 
ders, appear indented or hollow. The shoul- 
der-blades following the elevation of the 
arms, their bases incline at that time ob- 
liquely downward. If the arms are drawn 
down, put forwards, or pulled backwards, 
the shoulder-blades necessarily vary then- 
positions accordingly. All these particulars 
are to be learned by consulting the life only : 
when being well acquainted with what then 
appears in every action, the student will be 
able to form an adequate idea how it ought 
to be expressed. 
When the cubit or fore-arm is bent, the 
biceps has its belly very much raised. r I lie 
same happens in the triceps, when the arm is 
extended. The straight muscles of the ab- 
domen appear very strong when rising troin 
a decumbent posture. 1 hose parts of the 
great serratus muscle which are received into 
the teeth -or beginnings of the obliquus de- 
scendens muscle immediately below, are 
very much swelled when the shoulder on the 
same side is brought forwards; that serratus 
muscle then being employed in drawing the 
scapula forwards. 
The long extending muscles of the trunk 
act alternately in walking, after this manner: 
if the right leg bears the weight of the body, 
and the left is in translation as on tiptoe, the 
last-mentioned muscles of the back on the 
left side may be observed to be tumefied on 
the other side about the region of the loins, 
and so on the other side. I he trochanters, 
or outward and uppermost heads of the thigh- 
bones, vary so greatly in their positions, that 
no precise observations can explain their se- 
veral appearances; but the study after the 
life ought to be chiefly relied on. If the 
thigh is extended, as when the whole weight 
of the body rests on that side, the glutams or 
buttock-muscle alters its appearance; and if 
the thigh be drawn backwards, that muscle 
appears still more and more tumefied. When 
the whole leg is drawn upwards and forwards, 
! and at the same time the foot is inclined in- 
| wards, the upper part of the sartorius muscle 
557 
appears to rise very strongly ; in other posi- 
tions of the thigh, that muscle makes a fur- 
l'oving appearance in its whole progress. If 
a man is upon tiptoe, the extending muscles 
of the leg placed on the fore-part of the 
thigh, and those of the foot that compose the 
calf of the leg, appear very strong, and the 
long peromrus makes a considerable indenta- 
tion or furrowing at that time, in its progress 
on the outside ot the leg. See Muscles. 
Symmetry, or proportion, will be best 
learned by copying after the antique statues, 
of which plaister casts may be easily pro- 
cured. Mature, which in the formation of 
every species, seems to have aimed at the 
last degree of perfection, does not appear to 
have been equally solicitous in the produc- 
tion of individuals. Parts ot individuals are 
frequently as beautiful as possible, but a com- 
plete whole is never to be met with. 
The practice of the antient Greek statua- 
ries was, to select from various individuals 
the most beautiful parts, and by combining 
them, to produce figures more perfectly 
beautiful than nature ever presented. See 
Proportion, Statues Antique. 
Measures of the several parts rf the human 
figure. — The modems ordinarily divide the 
human figure into ten faces ; that is, lrom the 
crown of the head to the sole of the foot, in 
the manner following. From the crown ot 
the head to the forehead, is the third part ot 
the face. The face begins at the lowest hairs 
which are upon the forehead, and ends at the 
bottom of the chin. The face is divided into 
three proportional parts : the first contains 
the forehead, the second the nose, and the 
third the mouth and chin. From the chin to 
the pit between the collar-bones are two 
lengths of a nose. From the pit betwixt the 
collar-bones to the bottom of the breast one 
face. From the bottom of the breast to the 
naval one face. From the naval to the ge- 
nitals one face. From the genitals to the 
upper part of the knee two faces. r l he knee 
contains half a face. From the lower part 
of the knee to the ancle two faces. i‘ rom the 
ancle -to the sole of the toot half a face. 
A man, when his arms are stretched out, 
is from the longest finger of his right hand to 
the longest of his left, as broad as he is long. 
From one side of his breast to the other, two 
faces. The bone of the arm, called humerus, 
is the length of two faces, from the shoulder 
to the elbow. From the end of the elbow to 
the root of the little finger, the bone called 
cubitus, with part of the hand, contain two 
faces. From the box of the shoulder-blade 
to the pit betwixt the collar-bones, one face. 
If you will be satisfied in the measures of 
breadth, from the extremity of one finger to 
the other, so that this breadth should be 
equal to the length of the body, you must 
observe that the boxes ot the elbows with the 
humerus, and of the humerus with the 
shoulder-blade, bear the proportions of half 
a face, when the arms are stretched out. The 
sole of the foot is the sixth part of the figure. 
The thumb contains a nose. The inside of 
the arm, from the place where the muscle 
disappears, which makes the breast, called 
the pectoral muscle, to the middle of the 
arm, four noses. From the middle of the 
arm to the beginning of the hand, five noses. 
The longest toe is a nose long. The two ut- 
most parts of the teats, and the pit betwixt 
