934 
adapted for the promotion and support of ve- 
getation. And as they are found in most 
cases tube less disposed to the production of 
weeds, particularly those of the more inju- 
rious kinds, they can of course be kept clean 
with less labour, and without ti;e expensive 
system of management which is requisite on 
many other kinds of soil. 
Chalky or calcareous soils. Soils of the 
calcareous kind, which arc composed pf clay, 
sand, and chalk, occupy very extensive tracts 
of land in different parts of the kingdom, and 
ate marked with considerable diversity, as 
proceeding from the nature, properties,' and 
proportions of the calcareous matter as it 
exists in them; the substances that are mixed 
and combined with it; the depth and quali- 
ties of the earthy stratum which is placed 
upon it, and the dispo ilion of the sub-soil or 
basis on which this is formed and deposited. 
Calcareous matter is contained in many 
different stony substances, besides that of 
chalk, as marble, lime-stone, coral, and shells 
of different kinds; and in states of union with 
other materials, such as sand, the different 
simple earthy bodies, in different propor- 
tions, and in some instances with iron and 
magnesia. Its capability or powers of im- 
bibing and retaining moisture is considerable, 
though not so great as that of clay. Jt burns 
to lime by proper degrees of heat, and ab- 
sorbs carbonic acid gas, or fixed air in dif- 
ferent proportions from the atmosphere, and 
returns again to the state of chalk or mild 
calcareous matter. It is found of very dif- 
ferent degrees of hardness and friability, as 
well as of different states of fineness or pul- 
verization, in different soils of the class to 
which it belongs. It varies also greatly in 
its effects in respect to vegetation; from the 
different matters that may happen to be 
combined with it in its primitive or original 
state. It has long been known to the prac- 
tical agriculturist, that some sorts of lime 
may be employed in large proportions, while 
others cannot lie used, except in very small 
quantities, without doing very considerable 
Injury to the soil with which {hey are incor- 
porated. 
Calcareous matter, whether it is in the 
state of carbonat, or in the more active 
one of causticity, as quick-lime, seems ul- 
timately to promote the resolution and de- 
struction of vegetable and animal substances; 
in the latter state, however, it acts with much 
greater violence on these materials, destroy- 
ing their organization, and dissipating their 
principles more quickly, as well as robbing 
them more completely of the carbonic acid 
gas, or fixed air, which is so essential, while 
in the former it operates with great mildness, 
and only aids the resolution of those sub- 
stances by g ntly promoting the process of 
putre action. 
The proportions of clayey, loamy, and 
gravelly ingredients, which are conjoined 
with the calcareous matters of these soils, are 
various in different districts; where the ar- 
gillaceous and loamy materials are compa- 
rative y in large quantities, soils of the hea- 
v er chalky kinds are formed, and where the 
s; ndy or gravelly are predominant, we have 
ti e lighter ones.* There are also material 
differences proceeding from the earthy matter 
with which the calcareous ingredient is mixed 
in the state of soil. Where the quantity of 
this is small, and not reduced into any very 
HUSBANDRY. 
perfect state of mould, the soil, as it is evi- 
dent, must be poor and thin; but where the 
depth ol this superficial stratum is consider- 
able, and the annual, vegetable, and other 
substances, of which it is composed, is ad- 
vanced to a more complete stage of decom- 
position and decay, the soils -are more rich 
and heavy. Some variety is likewise caused 
by the state of the under-stratum or sub-soil. 
If it is compact, and much intermixed with 
siliceous or flinty matter, or have a mortary 
hardness, it is less favourable than where it is 
of a more open, brittle, or pow dery texture. 
M hatever appearances of lightness there 
may be in chalky soils, they require consi- 
derable st.englh in the team, where the 
staple or earthy stratum of the lands will ad- 
mit of their being wrought to a tolerable 
depth ; but where there is a thinner surface 
of earthy materials, less force of draught will 
be requisite. In the latter cases, the soil is, 
however, far more precarious and uncertain, 
as well as much less productive in respect to 
the crops that are cultivated upon it, than in 
the former. As chalky soils are not so liable 
to be injured by water as others, the business 
of tillage is much less impeded from that 
cause; but a dry season sometimes renders 
them so hard as to be totally incapable of 
being broken up, until they have been moist- 
ened by the falling of a considerable quan- 
tity of rain. 
Sandy or siliceous soils. Sands seem to 
have been gradually formed by the attrition 
and rubbing down of the. various solid sub- 
stances that are found in nature, especially 
such as are of the siliceous, calcareous, and 
stony kinds, and are of different degrees of 
fineness as they approach the size of gravel. 
1 hey are also met with of various colours 
and appearances in different regions or tracts 
of country, such as white, dusky brown, yel- 
low', and red. These differences, as well as 
those which respect their weight, tenacity, 
and other properties, depend on the nature 
and proportions in which many other mate- 
rials enter into combination with them. 
\\ here the proportions of clayey, loamy, 
or other earthy substances with which they 
are mixed, approach nearly to that of the 
sand, the heavier sorts of sandy soils are 
formed; but where these enter only in very 
small quantifies, we have the light sandy soils; 
and where they are hardly met with at all, 
the soil is a loose blowing sand, most com- 
monly of a white or brownish appearance. 
The portions of vegetable matters that are 
intermixed with different soils of the sandy 
kind are not less various than those of the 
clayey and loamy, from which considerable 
differences of qualify are produced. These 
differences in their textures and composi- 
tions also introduce others w hich respect their 
powers oi admitting and retaining heat and 
moisture. The openness and want of adher- 
ence in such soils, while they allow of the 
admission of heat and water more readily, 
permit them to .be carried off with greater 
ease and expedition, they are therefore less 
permanently benefited by their influence than 
the closer and more adhesive soils. 
i lie light, open, and porous texture of 
sandy soils renders them much more easilv 
cultivated and kept in order than those of 
tne strong and close kinds; consequently the 
farms where they prevail are generally large; 
and when properly- prepared, they are better 
adapted tor the growth of many sorts of 
crops, such as those of the bulbous and tap 
rooted sorts. They have also another ad- 
vantage, w hich is that of pushing forward the 
crops witn more expedition. Whatever in- 
conveniences attend them are mostly such as 
piocecd horn the want of a sufficient degree 
of cohesion among their constituent particles 
and solidity of texture. On these accounts 
they often counteract the best and most 
judicious management. The roots of the 
crops are liable to become naked and expos- 
ed from storms and various other causes ; and 
ifgiain, to fall down and be lodged so early 
in the season us to render them of little 
value. 
Gravelly soils. In the state of gravels 
which contribute to the formation of this 
class of soils, there is a variation of size in the 
pieces or pai tides of which they are compos- 
ed, from that of a very small pea to the largest 
cockle. Where they become of still larger 
dimensions they are termed stones or rooks, 
according as they are in small portions or 
large masses; and the soils are then said to be 
stony or rocky, as the circumstances of the 
different cases may happen to be. 
Tlie beds of gravel, whether they are of the 
larger or smaller kinds, are mostly either of 
the siliceous or flinty kind, or of the calca- 
i ecus oi chalky; but the stones and rocks are 
ot very different kinds. With these dissimilar 
substances, some others in different states of 
reduction and pulverization are blended and 
united in various proportions, so as to con- 
stitute gravelly soils that differ considerably 
m their textures and other properties. The 
chief of these are loams, and the mould or 
earthy matter formed by the destruction and 
decay of numerous animal and vegetable sub- 
stances. 
lhe gravelly mixture is sometimes also 
found to approach nearly to the surface, 
while at others it recedes considerably from 
it. In some instances springs rise immedi- 
ately underneath ; in others they are at a 
great depth. The bottom, or sub-soil, is 
likewise various; in some cases it is stonv and 
rocky, in others it is clayey, or a rocky gravel, 
and sometimes sand, &c. 
I he open porous nature of gravelly soils 
disposes them to admit moisture very rea- 
ch!) , as well as to part with it with equal faci- 
ht) ; horn the latter ot which circumstances 
they are subject to burn, as it is termed, in 
diy seasons, which is not the case in the hea- 
vier or more retentive sort of soils. 
Gravelly soils, from the lightness of their 
texture, and t heir not affording great resist- 
ance 1 , except where the stones are large, or 
there are rocks, are not expensive or difficult 
m the means of cultivation. All the neces- 
sary business of this sort is capable of being 
earned forward w ith much ease and expedi- 
tion, and the lands are in general soon 
brought into the proper states for the recep- 
tion of crops. 1 
Peaty or mossy soils. These soils consist 
chiefly of the roots of decayed vegetables, 
mixed with earth, mostly argillaceous, and 
sand, and a coaly substance derived also from 
decayed vegetables. They differ, like all the 
other kinds of soils, according to the nature 
ot the ingredients of which they are consti- 
tuted or composed, and the proportions in 
which these are found to prevail in them, 
4 
