Where the vegetable or peafy material pre- 
dominates but little over the other substances 
with which it is mixed and incorporated, the 
lighter sorts of peaty, moory, or heathy soils, 
are formed; but where the other matters beat- 
only a slight proportion to it, the deep and 
heavy, peaty or mossy, soils present them- 
selves. In different districts the peaty matter 
is found of different depths, and of various de- 
grees of density or closeness of texture, pro- 
bably proceeding from some original ditler- 
ences in the vegetable substances from which 
it was formed, or the greater advances which 
it has made to the state of perfect decompo- 
sition or decay. The sub-soil in most of tire 
deep mossy districts is of the clayey kind, 
more or less stiff and heavy, over which the 
peaty or mossy material is deposited, gene- 
rally’ in a sort of stratified order; the first 
laver of which being commonly not more 
than ten or twelve inches in thickness, exhi- 
bits the appearance of a rich brown earth, 
in all probability from the incorporation of 
the loamy or clayey matters, with the peat or 
vegetable earth, lying immediately upon 
them, and constituting originally, perhaps, 
the surface of the ground. The layer that 
succeeds to this is mostly of a dark colour, 
and considerable thickness, apparently form- 
ed of a great variety of vegetable mate- 
rials in the more perfect stages of reso- 
lution and decay, united together by time 
and other circumstances with more or less 
compactness and solidity. The uppermost- 
stratum, or that which is placed upon this 
dense, peaty matter, is, in general, of 
very pale colour, and very light spongy 
texture, arising possibly from the glasses, 
leaves, and other vegetable substances, of 
which it is formed, not having attained that 
state of decay which constitutes the darker 
sorts of peaty earth. 
But in the more superficial peaty soils, 
little or nothing of this stratified appearance 
is met with. A coat of peaty earth* differing 
greatly in thickness according to the peculi- 
arity of the situations, and other circum- 
stances, is formed by a great length of time 
from the destruction and decay of successive 
crops of grasses, leaves and substances of the 
heathy or other kinds, and deposited upon, 
and intermixed with, the various harder ma- 
terials of the soils which happened to be un- 
derneath them. By these means much va- 
riety is produced in the soils. Where the 
under-strata of earthy matter are tolerably 
good, and the crops of vegetables large and 
luxuriant, the better sorts of light peaty soils 
seem to be predominant; but where the qua- 
lity of the under-strata are indifferent, and 
the vegetable products scanty, as well as 
feeble in their growth, and principally of the 
heathy tribe, the poor peaty and heathy, or 
moory soils, are met with. 
All peaty soils seem to be thus gradually 
formed by the deposition of vegetable matter, 
supplied by the dissolution and decay of 
aquatic and other plants that grow in low 
moist situations, as well as substances of other 
kinds brought down by water, from the high 
grounds in their neighbourhood, in the states 
of solution and diffusion, and gradually 
deposited from it on its becoming in a state 
of stagnation, by means of obstruction and 
stoppages proceeding from different causes. 
From the nature of the composition of 
these soils, it is obvious that they must be 
HUSBANDRY. 
very retentive of water, especially where they 
are of any great depth. Hence they seldom or 
ever become free from the excessive quanti- 
ties of moisture, with which they are loaded 
in the rainy seasons. 
Vegetable earth or soil. This kind of 
earthy material constitutes the superficial bed 
or stratum, in which plants for the most paj t 
vegetate in every sort of soil, and differs very 
much in different places, from the variations 
that take place in its depth, and the greater 
or less progress that has been made in the 
several substances of which it is composed, to 
the stage of perfect decomposition or decay. 
Some variety may likewise be caused by 
its being more intimately or more loosely 
mixed and blended with the other bodies 
that are found in soils. It seems probable 
too, that the earthy matter which is formed 
from the destruction of some sorts of vege- 
table substances may be better suited for the 
purposes of vegetation than that which pro- 
ceeds from others. 
Vegetables, from their containing a con- 
siderable portion of mucilaginous matter in a 
state of mixture with their other substances, 
become, in some measure, capable of solution 
in water, though the external surfaces of living I 
plants, on account of the resinous and am- j 
malized materials that enter into their com- , 
position, are protected from its operation. ! 
From the former circumstance, and that of 
earthy matters being contained in them, 
which had been taken up in the state of solu- 
tion with their fresh juices while growing, it 
is evident that large quantities of vegetable 
mould must be continually formed and depo- 
sited on lands by the natural decay of such 
substances. 
But the formation of vegetable mould ox- 
earth is farther effected by means of the pu- 
trefaction or dissolution of such vegetables 
as are cut down, or otherwise destroyed, on 
the surface of the ground, and the application 
of various kinds of dung and composts. 
Where these have been in great abundance 
tor a long time, there is mostly a deep rich 
surface soil of this earth ; but where few ve- 
getable products, and those of the less luxu- 
riant kind, have been left to undergo the 
above process, or little assistance given by 
means of manures, the crust of surface mould 
is generally thin and poor. The resolution 
of vegetable matters is greatly promoted by 
a proper degree of moisture and heat, as well 
as a suitable state of the air. 
From the preceding account of soils, we 
may perceive that those are the best which 
contain the greatest store of those principles 
which constitute the pabula of vegetation. 
Such are calcareous soils, in which carbon 
must exist in lai’ge quantities, from the natu- 
ral attraction of lime for carbon, and where 
there will be a constant supply by means of 
tiiis attraction. Soils formed from the deeom 
position of animal and vegetable matters, are 
in their natures eminently, favourable to vege- 
tation ; for they contain hydrogen and carbon 
combined, together with the remains of ani 
mals and vegetables, as yet only tending to 
decomposition, with various salts resulting 
from the decomposition ot animal bodies, 
water, earth, and gaseous principles. 
Improvement of soils . From various 
causes, we perceive that some sorts of soil 
are less adapted to a vigorous production 
933 
tioii of vegetables tliafi others. To improve 
the less fertile is a main branch of husbandry. 
According to circumstances, various methods’ 
must be employed ; such as commixing one 
kind with another; draining such as are too 
retentive of moisture; irrgiating such as are 
by nature too dry; and refreshing tho^e with 
manures whose fertility has been exhausted. 
Of commixing various soils. Chemical 
anal) sis has shewn that substances of the cal- 
careous kinds are the most beneficial in bet- 
tering the condition ot clayey soils. F\ iieie 
the deficiency is in the want ot calcareous 
matter, linxe-sb ne, gravel, and calcareous 
marls are the most proper. If, however, these 
substances cannot be conveniently procured, 
a mixture of the coarser sands with lime and 
dung may be employed; or even cquI allies, 
sea sand, or chalk in the state of coarse 
powder may be advantageously used. 
Loamy soils stand not in need of so much, 
commixture with other substances as clayey, 
soils; the soil of ponds, ditches, or even a 
small proportion ot clayey soil may however, 
be applied to advantage, and especially dung.. 
Chalky 'or calcareous soils of the heavier 
sorts may be benefited by the application of. 
! sandy loams; the lighter sort, by clay, dung, 
and argillaceous marl. 
bandy soils may be improved by applying, 
calcareous marl, argillaceous and loamy in- 
gredients, and by the use of the fold* 
Gravelly soils ot the calcareous kind may 
be improved by clay, clayey loam, or chalk. 
Peaty soils, after being properly drained of 
their superfluous moisture, may be improved; 
by the application of gravel, common sand,, 
coarse earth, chalk, calcareous marl, dung, or 
sea sand. See Draining. 
Irrigation or watering land. The sys- 
tematic manner of watering meadow land, as 
now practised, is of modern invention, but of 
material importance to that farmer who pos- 
sesses land of proper quality, and commands 
a stream of water suitable to the purpose; as- 
he will be enabled to procure an earlier and 
fuller crop of grass than he could by other 
means. 
Water, independent of any substances ifc 
may hold in suspension, is ot univerai utility 
in vegetation ; being composed of two che- 
mical elements (hydrogen and oxygen) which, 
are highly favourable to vegetation, and di- 
rectly and powerfully nutritive to plants. It 
enters, even undecomposed, as an aliment 
' into the organization ot vegetables, it is the 
only vehicle by which nourishment can be 
conveyed from solid bodies to plants. And 
whatever gaseous food the roots ot vegetables 
receive, it is presented to them by the inter- 
mediation of water. Although thus beneficial! 
when administered in season and due propor- 
tion, yet an excessive allusion ot water tends 
to the destruction of many of the better 
grasses, and to the nourishment of rushes, 
mosses, sedge, and other aquatic weeds. A 
gentle allusion of his fluid, dispe sing its. If. 
in all directions, never stagnant never run- 
ning with great impetuosity of current, more 
• copiously applied in the light and under the* 
heat of the sun than in the dark, operates with; 
the best efficacy, as a promoter of vegetation. 
The idea of watering. meadows, fio tar as it 
relates to bringing the water upon the land, 
was undoubtedly, taken from nature. It must- 
have been always observed that winter floods 
produced fertility, provided the water, did not 
