304 
LINDLEY S VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 
a new creation, nothing but the foundation is 
old; it is in every possible way improved, and 
in almost all things changed. The object of 
the work, and some of the changes, are thus 
stated in the preface :— 
" Its object is to give a concise view of the 
state of Systematical Botany at the present 
day, to show the relation or supposed relation 
of one group of plants to another, to explain 
their geographical distribution, and to point 
out the various uses to which the species are 
applied in different countries. The names of 
all known genera, with their synonyms, are 
given under each Natural Order, the numbers 
of the genera and species are in every case 
computed from what seems to be the best 
authority, and complete Indices of the mul- 
titudes of names embodied in the work are 
added, so as to enable a Botanist to know 
immediately, under what Natural Order a given 
genus is stationed, or what the uses are to 
which any species has been applied. Finally, 
the work is copiously illustrated by wood and 
glyphographic cuts, and for the convenience of 
students, an artificial analysis of the system is 
placed at the end: Some of these points 
demand a few words of comment. 
" In offering to the public a view of the 
present state of Systematical Botany, the 
Author has pursued the plan developed in the 
succeeding pages, of first taking certain cha- 
racters common to very extensive assemblages 
of plants, by means of which Classes have been 
constituted ; and, secondly, of breaking up 
those Classes into minor groups called Alli- 
ances, whose common characters are also more 
extensive than those of Natural Orders, and 
under which the Natural Orders are them- 
selves assembled. Very short characters have 
been proposed, under the name of Diagnoses, 
for both Alliances and Orders ; these are 
intended to express the prevailing tendency 
observable in each group, but' do not include 
casual exceptions, for which the reader is re- 
ferred to the descriptions immediately follow- 
ing the Diagnosis. The Alliances are the 
most important feature in the arrangement ; 
and it is to be hoped will be found much 
better limited than they formerly were. The 
serious fault committed in the Author's former 
work, of founding Alliances upon single 
Natural Orders, has been avoided in every 
case except that of Palms, which in reality 
seem to form an Alliance by themselves. The 
name Alliance has been preserved in pre- 
ference to that of class, family circle, cohort, &c. 
because it is not susceptible of two interpreta- 
tions, as is the case with all the others ; it is 
employed as an English equivalent for the 
Latin term nixus, which some have imagined 
was a misprint for nexus, but which was used 
in the sense of Cicero, and intended to express 
a tendency to assume some particular form of 
structure. If any one should inquire why no 
synonyms have been quoted to these Alliances, 
concerning which so many Botanists have 
lately occupied themselves, the Author's 
answer is, that they have hitherto been much 
too little agreed upon, except in a few very 
special cases, and that an examination of their 
history would involve an inquiry which must ex- 
tend back to the Anth -mides of Csesalpinus, and 
which belongs to the History of Systematical 
Botany rather than to its actual condition. 
The whole practice, indeed, of quoting syno- 
nyms is carried by Botanists beyond useful 
limits. It is in many cases a matter of courtesy 
rather than of utility ; and for this reason, as 
no one is bound to be courteous to himself, the 
Author has very generally refrained from 
making references to his own writings, except 
when some real necessity for doing so appeared 
to exist. He may also state in this place, that 
throughout the present work he has struck out 
many of the citations given in the last edition, 
conceiving it useless again to occupy space 
with the names of authorities which can be 
always found by those who are desirous to 
search for them. 
" In pointing out the affinities of plants the 
opinions of the most judicious'systematists 
have been consulted ; anioDg these the names 
of Arnott, Auguste de St. Hilaire, Bennett, 
Bentham, Ad. Brongniart, Brown, Cambes- 
sedes, Decaisne, the De Candolles, Endlicher, 
the Hookers, the Jussieus, Martius, Miers, and 
Richard, stand in the first rank. In addition 
to the short discussion upon this subject which 
always follows the paragraph descriptive of a 
Natural Order, there is appended to the list of 
genera a plan of indicating affinity now adopted 
for the first time. It consists of printing the 
name of the Order under discussion in capital 
letters ; placing right and left of it in small 
Roman letters the names of those Orders 
which are supposed to be in nearest alliance 
to it ; and above and below it in italic type 
the names of such as are only analogous, or at 
least have a more distant affinity." 
It is clear, therefore, that those who con- 
demned the natural system for its incongruity 
were doing a real service, inasmuch as it 
called attention to the errors and deficiencies, 
and brought the advocates of the system to a 
consideration of making some progress to keep 
pace with the times. The Linnasan system has 
no disciples of sufficient perseverance to modify, 
to alter, improve, and illustrate it. It is the 
same humdrum thing now, as it was inLinnams's 
time, while the Natural System has been 
steadily advancing, and when it shall once be 
brought to perfection, or .even to a state bor- 
dering on it, will be intelligible to most people 
who take any delight in Botany. The true 
