408 
FAMILIAR LESSONS ON PRACTICAL GARDENING. 
The operator should commence this work 
with his back towards the unwronght ground, 
so that he may not in drawing one drill, 
interfere with another. The distance between 
the drills or channels depends on the kind of 
crop to be sown, as also does their depth. 
Along these channels, the seeds are scattered, 
and the earth is then pushed in on them with 
the back of the hoe, so as to make the surface 
level. This completes drill-sowing. 
Broadcast sowing is done thus : — The sur- 
face is broken over tolerably fine with the 
hoe and a coarse rake ; the seeds are then 
scattered evenly over, and so as to lie a little 
distance apart ; the surface is then worked 
more or less with the teeth of a rake, accord- 
ing as the size of the seeds renders it necessary 
that they should be more or less deeply buried. 
Vast quantities of seeds are wasted from 
being sown too thick ; and the crops are often 
injured in consequence for want of early and 
sufficient thinning. As, however, every seed 
that is sown does not always grow, it is 
necessary to sow rather more seed than would 
otherwise be sufficient ; and when the seed is 
old or not of good quality the proportion must 
be still more increased. The smallest seeds, 
such for example as those of celery, would be 
the better for germinating at the distance of 
half-an-inch apart, or should at once be thinned 
out to this distance. Larger seeds should be 
three-fourths of, or a whole inch apart ; and 
such as peas and beans, two, three, and four 
inches, according to the size they ultimately 
grow to. Except with the latter, it is not 
possible to be so very exact in practice ; but 
if the quality of the seed has been tested, the 
nearer it can be sown to grow up at these 
distances apart the better. When young 
seedlings are so thick as to touch each other, 
they are suffering injury, and should be 
thinned out, the plants that are removed 
being either destroyed or pricked out (that 
is, transplanted) elsewhere. Many crops, 
which are not sown where they stand till 
maturity, are purposely sown thick to save 
space, and are then transplanted almost as 
soon as they are grown up; in this way celery, 
the cabbage tribe, lettuces, &c. are treated. 
PLANTING AND TRANSPLANTING. 
Plants are endued with life, that life de- 
pending on the nourishment which they obtain, 
chiefly by the agency of their roots from the 
soil, but also in some degree by the leaves 
from the atmosphere. The parts of the roots 
which thus minister to the existence of plants, 
are the little delicate extremities of the fibrous 
branches into which the main roots become 
ramified ; these are called the spongioles, from 
their having an absorbent capacity resembling 
that of sponge. If by any means these 
spongioles are destroyed, the plant suffers from 
lack of nourishment ; and if new spongioles 
are not speedily formed (which, under certain 
conditions, is usually the case) the plant ulti- 
mately dies — sooner or later, according to its 
peculiar constitution. The secret of successful 
transplantation depends on the preservation 
of the spongioles uninjured — that is, not in- 
jured materially, for some degree of injury is 
unavoidable— in the process, or on the placing 
of the plants in a condition to produce fresh 
spongioles speedily. The former affects 
chiefly the lifting of the plants from the soil; 
and the latter, the replacing of them. We 
shall only refer to such transplantation as 
occurs in a kitchen garden, and in the removal 
of the commoner fruit trees. 
In the lifting of kitchen-garden plants — ■ 
cabbages for example' — it is a general practice 
to pull them up by force. This is decidedly 
wrong ; for nearly or quite all the spongioles 
will be broken off. Instead of being thus 
mutilated, the plants 
should be lifted with 
a small spud, by which 
means nearly every ^ <■" 
root may be preserved entire ; there is not 
much advantage in retaining a quantity of 
soil about the roots ; indeed the weight of a 
mass of earth often breaks the roots after 
they are otherwise safely lifted. 
In taking up fruit-trees proceed thus : — ■ 
Commence digging out the soil, at about as 
far from the trunk as the branches extend ; 
then dig out the soil towards the trunk from 
amongst the roots carefully, with the digging 
fork in preference to a spade ; do not strive 
to leave a quantity of soil about the roots, but 
be chiefly careful to preserve every root — as 
far as possible — unbroken. As soon as a 
portion of the roots are bared, have them 
covered with damp mats, that they may not 
become parched. If the tree be rather large 
and the roots numerous, the latter should be 
tied together, as soon as they are dug out, so 
as not to be damaged during the progress of 
the operation. Any very long roots from trees 
of this kind, may be cut back with a sharp 
knife, the slope of the cut being on the under 
side. No other roots should be cut or bruised 
or broken. 
The conditions most favourable to a re- 
newal of growth are these : — Do not let the 
roots get at all dry from exposure to the sun, 
or to the wind ; but plant immediately, or if 
this cannot be done, keep the roots closely 
covered up with damp mats. Do not, more 
than can be avoided, allow the plants, of what- 
ever kind, to be " laid in by the heels," as it 
is termed, when their roots are laid into slop- 
ing trenches so as to be covered temporarily 
with soil ; but rather take but few at a time 
