68 HUMANE TREATMENT OF ANIMALS USED IN RESEARCH 
of the Physiology Research Laboratory of the Veterans’ Adminis- 
tration Hospital in Baltimore, Md. ; since October 1961 I have held 
the corresponding appointment at the Veterans’ Administration hos- 
pital in San Francisco, Calif.; and since January 1962 I have been a 
member of the Veterans’ Administration Program Coordinating 
Committee for research in the basic medical sciences. I am an as- 
sociate clinical professor of medicine and a consultant staff member of 
the Cardiovascular Research Institute of the San Francisco Medical 
Center of the University of California. 
Since 1949, my major field of research has been the biophysics of 
the expansion of the lungs of mammals. Most of my work in this 
field has been conducted by means of experiments on living animals ; 
and between 1938 and 1941 and again between 1946 and 1957 I was 
licensed under the British act of Parliament to perform such experi- 
ments, both for research and for demonstration to students. 
I hope that the foregoing will indicate that I believe experiments on 
living animals to be necessary for both teaching and research in medi- 
cine, that I am unlikely to seek to curtail the freedom of research 
workers or teachers to perform these experiments, and that my sup- 
port of legislation that would impose governmental regulation of 
vivisection is not likely to be for emotional reasons. 
The scientific societies that speak officially for scientists, and also 
many individual scientists, argue that control or regulation of experi- 
ments on living animals is unnecessary, because the institutions of 
medical research and education and the scientific societies already 
police these activities voluntarily and adequately; and undesirable, 
because it will result in administrative interference with scientific 
freedom. 
It is true that most university medical schools and many inde- 
pendent medical and biological research institutes, including the 
laboratories of governmental agencies and of drug manufacturers, 
have voluntarily adopted codes for the treatment of experimental 
animals that should : 
(1) insure adequate standards of welfare; that is, housing, 
feeding, avoidance of infection, and so forth, 
(2) prevent the performance without good cause of experi- 
ments calculated to cause pain, and 
(3) minimize the pain or discomfort caused during or after 
surgical procedures forming part of experiments. Moreover, 
many scientific societies now refuse to publish in their journals 
papers based on research in which these principles have not been 
observed — a penalty that should do much to discourage careless 
or casual treatment or experimentation. How effective these 
measures have been, is however, imknown. 
Moreover, it is still possible in many States for experiments in- 
volving surgical procedures to be performed on living animals, in 
institutions not devoted to medical or biological research or teaching, 
by persons inadequately qualified to do them, and for reasons that I 
would consider inadequate justification for them, even if they were 
entirely without the risk of causing pain to the subject animals. I 
refer specifically to experiments performed as a part of 'high school 
courses in biology, or as part of a student’s submission to a “science 
fair” or other, similar competitive activity. As a teacher of physi- 
