8 • Impacts of Applied Genetics— Micro-Organisms, Plants, and Animals 
engineering to maintain their positions in their 
respective markets. This is already illustrated 
hy the variety of companies in the pharmaceu- 
tical, chemical, and energy industries that have 
invested in or contracted with genetic engineer- 
ing firms. Some large companies are already de- 
veloping inhouse genetic engineering research 
capabilities. 
Any predictions of the number of workers 
that will be required in the production phase of 
biotechnology will depend on the expected 
volume of chemicals that will be produced. At 
present, this figure is unknown. An estimated 
$15 billion worth of chemicals may be manufac- 
tured by biological processes. This will employ 
approximately 30,000 to 75,000 workers for su- 
pervision, services, and production. Whether 
this will represent a net loss or gain in the num- 
ber of jobs is difficult to predict since new jobs 
in biotechnology will probably displace some of 
those in traditional chemical production. 
Food processing industry 
FINDINGS 
Genetics in the food processing industry can 
be used in two ways: to design micro-organisms 
that transform inedible biomass into food for 
human consumption or into feed for animals; 
and to design organisms that aid in food proc- 
essing, either by acting directly on the food 
itself or by providing materials which can be 
added to food. 
The use of genetics to design organisms with 
desired properties for food processing is an 
established practice. Fermented foods and 
beverages have been made by selected strains 
of mutant organisms (e.g., yeasts) for centuries. 
Only recently, however, have molecular tech- 
nologies opened up new possibilities. In par- 
ticular, large-scale availability of enzymes will 
play an increasing role in food processing. 
The applications of molecular genetics are 
likely to appear in the food processing industry 
in piecemeal fashion: 
• Inedible biomass, human and animal 
wastes, and even various industrial efflu- 
ents are now being transformed into edible 
micro-organisms high in protein content 
(called single-cell protein or SCP). Its pres- 
ent cost of production in the United States 
is relatively high, and it must compete with 
cheaper sources of protein such as soy- 
beans and fishmeal, among others. 
• Isolated successes can be anticipated for 
the production of such food additives as 
fructose (a sugar) and the synthetic sweet- 
ener aspartame, and foi' improxements in 
SCP production. 
An industrywide impact is not expected in the 
near future because of several major conflicting 
factors: 
• The basic knowledge of the genetic charac- 
teristics that could improve food has not 
been adequately developed. 
• The food processing industry is conserva- 
tive in its expenditures for R&.D to impi ove 
processes. Generally, only one-third to one- 
half as much is allocated for this purpose as 
in technologically intensive industries. 
• Products made by new microbial soui'ces 
must satisfy the Food and Drug .Adminis- 
tration's (FDA) safety regulations, which in- 
clude undergoing tests to pro\i? lack of 
harmful effects. It may be possihU* to 
reduce the amount of recjuired testing by 
transferring the desired gejie into mici’o- 
organisms that already meet FDA stand- 
ards. 
The use of genetically engineered 
micro-organisms in the environment 
FINDINGS 
Genetically engineered micro-organisms arc 
being designed now to p(M'torm in three areas 
(aside from agricultui’al u.ses) that r('(|uirc their 
large-scale release into th(? (mu ironment: 
• mineral leaching and i’(h:o\ (m v, 
• enhanced oil recovery, and 
• pollution control. 
All of these are characterized by: 
• the use of large volumes of micro-orga- 
nisms, 
• decreased control o\ei' the hehaxior .ind 
fate of the micro-organisms, 
