172 • Impacts of Applied Genetics— Micro-Organisms, Plants, and Animals 
Besides a lack of capital or a lack of interest in 
innovating, some farmers have resisted applied 
genetics because efficiency is not their most im- 
portant priority. This attitude has been de- 
scribed as follows:^ 
It is easy to see why breeders are unreceptive 
to the science of genetics. The business of 
breeding pedigree stock for sale is not just a 
matter of heredity, perhaps not even predomi- 
nantly so. The devoted grooming, feeding and 
fitting, the propaganda about pedigrees and 
wins at fairs and shows, the dramatics of the 
auction ring, the trivialities of breed characters, 
and the good company of fellow breeders, con- 
stitute a vocation, not a genetic enterprise. 
Farmers are traditionally an independent 
group. Many believe that they may not directly 
recapture the benefits of participating in a 
breeding program based on genetics; having no 
records on one’s animals is often preferable to 
discovering proof that one's herd is performing 
poorly. On the other hand, one impact of AI has 
been to demonstrate to farmers the value of 
adopting new technologies. Furthermore, the 
economic reward of production records has in- 
creased, since AI organizations purchase only 
dairy sires with extensive records on relatives. 
Some future trends 
Applied genetics in poultry and livestock 
breeding comprise a group of powerful technol- 
ogies that have already strongly influenced 
prices and profits. Nevertheless, the effect of 
genetics is only just beginning to be felt; much 
improvement remains to be made in all species. 
It has been observed that modern genetics: 
. . . provides a verifiable starting point for the 
development of the complex breeding operation 
that many populations now require . . . (which) 
are as far removed from simple selection as the 
motor car is from the bicycle. 
Of these technologies, some are already in 
regular use, some are in the process of being ap- 
plied, and others must await further research 
and development before they become generally 
available. 
'•Ibid., p. 170. 
'“E. P. Cunningham, "Current Developments in the Genetics of 
Livestock Improvement," in tSth Inlernational Conference on Ani- 
mal Blood Groups and Biochemistry, Genetics 7:191, 1 976. 
Societal pressures are one of the many fac- 
tors that influence the introduction of these 
technologies. Several developments around the 
world will have a clear impact on inno\ ation in 
general and on genetics in particular: 
• An expanding population, with its growing 
demand for food products of all kinds. 
• The growth in income for parts of the pop- 
ulation, which may increase the demand 
for sources of meat protein. 
• Increasing comjietition for the consumer's 
dollar among various sources of protein, 
which could reduce demand for meat. 
• Increasing competition for prime agri- 
cultural land among agricultural, urban, 
and industrial interests. Fess-lhan-prime 
land may also he brought hack into prodiu'- 
tion as demand rises, and lh(* sanu’ pres- 
sures may cause land pricers to rise high 
enough to encourage greater, or intensi- 
fied, use of land in li\'(fslock pi'oduction. 
• Increasing demand for I'.S. food and fiber 
products from abroad, U'ading to oppor- 
tunities for incr(?as(ui |)rofits for successful 
producers. 
Changes like thes(‘ will strongly allect the 
way American fai niers |)roduce food and fihei- 
products, rhe economics of efficiency and a 
growing world population w ill continue to place 
pressure on tlu? agricultural sector to inno\ate 
In animals and animal |)roducts, efficiencies w ill 
he found in all stc'ps of production. I.fforts will 
be made to incr(?ase the numhei- of li\(* births 
and to iXHluce neonatal calf fertility, presently 
one of th(? costliest steps— in terms ol animals 
lost— throughout tlu? world. I^stimates ol the po- 
tential moncUary h(Miefits of the application of 
knowledge obtained fi'om |)rior reseaich in re- 
producti\’(^ physiology l ange as high .is ,S i bil- 
lion per yt^ar. Another area for great economies 
in production is genetic gain. Much ^enetK 
progi’ess remains to In' made in all species 
t'ertain t(U’hnologies promise to incre.ise the 
ability of farmers to capitali/.e on the genetic im 
pro\'(Miient of economically im|)ort.mt Ir.iits 
Suppliers of gc'iietic material (semen, emhi vus) 
will focus increased attention on the \ .ilue ut 
their products for sale both in the I nited St.ites 
and abroad. 
