182 • Impacts of Applied Genetics — Micro-Organisms, Plants, and Animals 
ization is particularly attractive to owners 
of commercial herds and flocks who con- 
stantly replace their stocks. This genetic 
improvement is noncumulative— the im- 
provement does not continue from gener- 
ation to generation. At present, no strong 
interest exists for improving the Nation’s 
heef herd as a whole, and the individual 
breeder cannot effectively evaluate the 
germplasm available to him. 
Swine. — There is no Nationwide testing pro- 
gram for hogs in the United States.* However, a 
study of needed research prepared by the 
USDA in 1976 noted that the production rate of 
approximately 13 pigs marketed per sow per 
year in the United States could be significantly 
improved. The biological potential is at least 20 
to 25 pigs per year. Similarly, a successful 
breeding program, along with other managerial 
changes, could reduce the fat and increase the 
lean content of pork by as much as 10 to 15 lb 
per carcass. 
The ARS study noted that “. . . an area that 
warrants particular attention is the develop- 
ment of a comprehensive national swine testing 
program leading to the identification, selection, 
and use of genetically superior boars, together 
with guidelines for the development and use of 
sow productivity and pig performance in- 
dexes.”''* In the case of swine, the increased use 
of intensive housing, which allows reproductive 
control, should increase the impetus for prog- 
eny testing. Likewise, pinpointing areas where 
considerable improvement remains to be made 
should lead to the identification of selection 
objectives. 
Beef. — After World War II, a few breeders 
became increasingly interested in problems of 
inbreeding and the economic costs of dwarfism. 
By that time, some had been trained in genetics 
and some breed associations and State agencies 
initiated localized testing programs for these 
traits. In 1967, a "Beef Improvement Federation” 
‘There are several State programs — in Indiana, North Carolina, 
and Tennessee. Some of these programs may test only growth and 
not litter size. 
'■•U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Ser\ - 
ice, ARS National Research Program, Swine Production, NKI’ No. 
20370, October 1976. 
of local and breed groups was formed to try to 
consolidate the different systems of the State 
improvement programs. The Federation is now 
involved in:'® 
• establishing uniform, accurate records, 
• assisting member organizations in de\ elop- 
ing performance programs, 
• Encouraging cooperation among all seg- 
ments of the industry in using records, 
• Encouraging education by emiihasizing the 
use of records, 
• developing confidence in performance test- 
ing throughout the industry. 
Despite these efforts, only about 3 pi'rcenl of 
beef cattle nationally are recoi'ded. This rel- 
atively low participation rate, \\ 1umi compared 
with NCUHIF, has both a Uu hnological and an 
institutional explanation. Unck'r th(’ larg(*l\ (‘x- 
tensi\ e heef raising system in th(» Uniti'd Stale's, 
AI is difficult as long as estrus detection 
technologies are una\ailahle. Natural stud se>r\- 
ice is usually moi'e economical. Institutional har- 
riers also pre\ent the d(‘\ I'lopment of a strong 
genetic evaluation program— e.g., the hie'ed 
associations are not all eager to ha\(* theii' 
breeds consistently compared u ith othe'i s. Uk«*- 
wise, some owners of hulls for stud s»*r\ ice 
would lose business in a strict testing scheme. 
Goats. — I hough little genetic work has been 
done on goats in the past, the dairy goat in- 
dustry has heconu' moic \ isihle in the past h’w 
years. I'he desire' of goat hre'e'de'i s to particip.ite 
in NCDllll’ l('d to the' formation nl a ( ooi - 
dinating Sul)-(irou[) for Dairy (lOats \ i ('\ lew ol 
the I'eseai'ch pe'rfoi iiK'd indicate'd a gi i'.it need 
foi’ resf'ai’ch in almost e\ ('l y are'a ol production 
As a result, .All’l, d('\('loped a plan lor a genetic 
impro\ement piogram. I he leadi'i ship in the 
dairy goat induslrx' was coin inced that it i ould 
attain gene'tic impro\ I'liK'nl taster .ind at a 
lower ('ost \ ia N( Dllll’ than it could lor an\ 
other type' of re'se'an h. 
In 1979, .All’l. r('cei\('el a .Sl5.()t)() gi.inl Imm 
the Small I'arms Be'search I unelinf; to support 
the ele'\'e'le)pme'iit of genetii' evaluation priMi- 
'■'R I. Willh.mi, l.cnrlK \ili\ilx in tin I s i.., i 
Journal I’iipcr Nl) J-792.1 nl Ihi- Inw.t ii iillo' ,ii .n all '■ < I • 
nnmiis l.xpcrimi'nl St.ilion Vinrs low.i pinii il\i> • a 
