50 
Psyche 
[March 
THE ANTIQUITY OF SOCIAL INSECTS 
By J. C. Bequaert and F. M. Carpenter 
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 
The geological antiquity of social habits among the insects 
has been the subject of much speculation. Estimates of the 
time of origin of social insects show little agreement and 
range from the Permian to the Eocene. Up to the present 
time, however, actual remains of insects belonging to social 
families have not been found in strata older than the Eocene. 
For this reason the Cretaceous fossil recently described by 
Dr. R. W. Brown 1 as Celliforma favosites is of much en- 
tomological interest. In Dr. Brown’s opinion this specimen 
represents the comb of a wasp nest and thus constitutes the 
earliest geological record of the social wasps and of social 
insects in general. Through the kindness of Dr. Brown, we 
have been able to examine the fossil itself and to discuss it 
with our associates. We are convinced from this exam- 
ination that Dr. Brown’s identification of the fossil is a 
doubtful one, and are of the opinion that it is not the nest 
of a social wasp. If this fossil were from a Tertiary deposit, 
it would have relatively little significance; but being from 
the Cretaceous, it would, if unquestionably identified, greatly 
extend the range of the social wasps. Because of this, we 
have decided to publish a discussion of the fossil and of our 
reasons for the above conclusion. The antiquity of social 
habits among the insects is a very complicated question, as 
we shall indicate later, and all suggestions deserve serious 
consideration; but we believe that evidence bearing on the 
subject should be critically and carefully examined before 
definite conclusions are reached. 
The piece of rock containing the fossil is an irregular 
ironstone nodule, the center of which is occupied by the fos- 
sil. One half of the specimen (shown on plate 1 of Dr. 
iAmer. Journ. Sci., vol. 239, January, 1941, pp. 54-56. 
