336 
Psyche 
[September-December 
using proper film storage procedures, a positive made from the inter- 
negative and then the internegative should be filed. Analysis should 
be conducted with the positive — if possible one should pay extra 
to get an “answer print” in which very little of the original resolu- 
tion is lost. Insist on the processor’s retaining the side numbering 
of the original; every twentieth frame is numbered in sequence, a 
very useful reference for frame-by-frame analysis. A professional 
movie processor will advise customers on special applications, in- 
cluding A & B answer prints for an exhibit, film titling and/or 
optical vs. magnetic sound track. 
Improved techniques of filming could include I ) use of high in- 
tensity strobe lights flashing at a rate synchronized by the shutter- 
pulse signal of the camera and at a speed higher than the flicker- 
fusion frequency of the insect’s eyes. This would reduce the heat 
generated, but on the other hand there seems to be an upper limit to 
the frequency of stroboscopic flashing and resulting light intensity 
which allows the insects so far examined to behave normally. Other 
improvements in technique would include 2) a system allowing easy 
attachment of a mini-oscilloscope to the camera, thereby allowing 
easy movement of the camera relative to those of the subjects. A 
less expensive dual-trace mini-CRO is on the market (Tektronix 
212) and is quite satisfactory for speeds up to 2000 pps. Also 3) use 
of reflective paints at anatomical points of reference, and 4) com- 
bination with some other techniques now in use, including telementry 
(especially magnetometers with Hall-generators), probe microphones, 
electrode pickups, etc. superimposed and synchronized on the film 
frame. 
The versatility and precision of ptenocinematography with syn- 
chronized oscillography for analysis of animal behavior is not 
equalled by any other method and, as one becomes familiar with 
the technique, the expense of film will decrease. The maximum 
initial investment and maintenance are probably equal to that of the 
least expensive electron microscope, if one needs to purchase an 
audiometric room and all ancillary facilities. 
This technique is most useful for biomechanical studies where 
precise synchronization and micro-timing is necessary, i.e., where 
movements take less than 50 msec, as in the vibratory stridulations 
of many grasshoppers (Otte, 1970; Willey & Willey, 1969). 
Otherwise, videotape systems can approximate a 60 pps cinema 
system and, combined with simultaneous or ex post facto oscillog- 
raphy of the recorded sounds (Wussow et al. } 1974; Steinberg & 
Willey, 1974), would be as useful and less expensive. 
