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Psyche 
[Vol. 90 
diverse morphologically, and that diversity in the group {sensu lato) 
far exceeded that of any other Paleozoic order (Carpenter, 1977). 
Structural modifications normally associated with more recent 
insects, including brightly patterned wings, raptorial fore legs, and 
thoracic extensions of various kinds, are found throughout the 
group. 
Despite this fascinating array of characters. Carboniferous 
Protorthoptera have generated little interest among systematists. 
This is due, in part, to problems common to all paleoentomological 
study: an overall lack of material (rarely is a species based on a large 
series of specimens); preservational quality that ranges from excel- 
lent to very poor; and a taxonomy that is highly subjective. 
In addition, there are problems unique to the Protorthoptera 
which make their study particularly difficult. First, they are neop- 
terous, and as a consequence, are most frequently found with their 
wings superimposed on one another. Interpretation of the venation 
under these circumstances is not only difficult, but prone to error. 
Second, the vast majority of Carboniferous Protorthoptera are 
known from only two localities: Commentry in France, and Mazon 
Creek in the United States, and were studied primarily by turn-of- 
the-century workers.- As new material has become available for 
study in recent years, the accuracy of much of this earlier work has 
been questioned. 
Finally, there is the problem of variation. Distinguishing species- 
level differences from intraspecific variation in fossils that have such 
a limited array of characters is not easily resolved. How, for 
instance, does one recognize sexual dimorphism in a fossil species 
when there are no genitalia or secondary sexual characters to serve 
as guidelines? It is not surprising under the circumstances that 
paleotaxonomy rests largely on subjective reasoning. But this, 
unfortunately, has its pitfalls. 
Previous work on the Geraridae is a case in point. Anton Hand- 
lirsch, responsible for most of the earlier work on the family, de- 
scribed a new species of gerarid for every specimen he examined. 
-The Permian Protorthoptera are generally much better known than their Carbo- 
niferous relatives. This is attributable to the fact that there are more than eight major 
Permian deposits (including two in the U.S.) at which Protorthoptera have been 
found. Furthermore, intensive studies on these insects have attracted the attention of 
such well-known recent workers as Carpenter, Kukalova, and Sharov. 
