Ch. 5— The Use of Animals in Research • 103 
an alternative to using them in laboratory re- 
search (6,44). The following benefits and limita- 
tions of naturalistic observation have been rec- 
ognized: 
• Naturalistic observation is frequently a start- 
ing point. Observation of animals in the field 
provides a base of descriptive information 
and serves as a source of hypotheses to be 
subsequently tested under laboratory con- 
ditions . 
• Naturalistic observation can be used to com- 
pare behavior observed in the field with that 
occurring in the laboratory to assess the ex- 
tent to which an artificial environment may 
alter behavior, and whether the results can 
be generalized. 
• Field studies can increase the efficiency with 
which animals are used by providing impor- 
tant information on natural species variables 
and biological constraints on behavior. 
• The principal drawback to naturalistic obser- 
vation is the absence of control. Under nat- 
ural conditions, events frequently change in 
both important and spurious ways, often 
making it impossible to establish cause-and- 
effect relations (37). 
Behavioral research often requires study of one 
animal or a group through time, as development 
proceeds . Among many species the emergence of 
different patterns of behavior is a reflection of 
both maturational and experiential factors. De- 
velopmental variables have been identified as be- 
ing important in the expression of such diverse 
behaviors as aggression, communication, activity, 
learning, and social behavior. 
Laboratory studies undertake to manipulate 
and control the condition of observation so as to 
specify more precisely the variables and condi- 
PAIN AND DISTRESS 
There are two general kinds of animal ex- 
perimentation in which pain may occur. First, 
there are studies that investigate the nature of 
pain itself and the anatomical, behavioral, chem- 
ical, pharmacological, and physiological mecha- 
nisms responsible for it. In such studies, the inflic- 
tions that influence the behavior in question. Most 
laboratory studies of behavior can be subdivided 
into those that attempt to identify the environ- 
mental determinants of behavior and those con- 
cerned with the organic basis for behavior. 
Within the latter category are a number of ap- 
proaches involving attempts to identify the neu- 
roanatomical, neurochemical, endocrinological, 
and genetic underpinnings for behavior. 
Use of Multiple Species in 
Behavioral Research 
Many behavioral phenomena appear common 
to different species. Patterns of migration, for ex- 
ample, are common to such diverse groups as in- 
sects, fish, birds, and even some species of mam- 
mals. Much the same appears true for learning, 
motivation, and bodily maintenance. Yet, gen- 
eralizations about categories of behavior (e.g., 
parental care or hoarding) in unrelated species 
may be misleading, because the species evolved 
independently (34). Moreover, comparing the per- 
formance of different species on a simple task 
may have no bearing on larger issues such as in- 
telligence (26). What used to be seen as general 
principles and "laws” of learning, for example, 
now turn out to be specific to certain species un- 
der certain situations (3,4,53). 
There are some behaviors that are of limited 
scope across species but of profound importance 
in terms of their bearing on the question of hu- 
man behavior. For example, the capacity to rec- 
ognize one’s own reflection in a mirror has only 
been found in humans, chimpanzees, and orangu- 
tans, and much the same may apply to instances 
of intentional deception, gratitude, grudging, sym- 
pathy, empathy, attribution, reconciliation, and 
sorrow (17). 
RESEARCH ANIMALS 
tion of pain and the monitoring of the responses 
to pain are usually integral parts of the experi- 
mental procedure. The goal is the prevention, 
treatment, and amelioration of human and ani- 
mal pain. The second, and much larger, class of 
animal experimentation in which pain may occur 
