Ch. 9— Animal Use in Education and the Alternatives • 203 
Table 9-2.— Courses on Ethics and Animals Offered at U.S. Colleges and Universities, 1983-84 
Institution Course name (department and course number) 
Appalachian State University People, Plants, and Animals (Philosophy 3560) 
California State University Animal Rights (Philosophy 1941; General Studies 4279) 
Central Michigan State University Religion and Social Issues (Religion 335) 
Colorado State University Attributes of Living Systems (Biology 102; Honors) 
Moral and Conceptual Issues in Veterinary Medicine (Veterinary Medicine 712) 
Eastern Michigan State University Introduction to Philosophy (Philosophy 100) 
Elmira College Mankind? We and Other Animals (Humanities 0530) 
Indiana University-Purdue University Ethics and Animals (Philosophy 493) 
Michigan State University Ethics and Animals (Philosophy 494) 
Perspective in Veterinary Medicine (Veterinary Medicine 517) 
Moorhead State University Animal Rights (Philosophy 215) 
North Carolina State University Philosophical Issues in Environmental Ethics (Philosophy 332) 
Purdue University Ethics and Animals (Philosophy 280) 
Stanford University Animal Rights: Issues and Politics (Stanford Workshop on Political and Social 
Issues Program 161) 
State University of New York at Stony 
Brook Human/Pet Bonds (Psychology 391) 
University of Connecticut Problems in Environmental Law: Issues in Animal Rights and Protection (Law 852) 
University of Maryland Philosophy and Environmental Ethics (Philosophy 0255) 
University of Minnesota Perspectives: Animal-Human Relationships and Community Health (Public 
Health 5-303) 
Virginia Polytechnic Institute Special Study, Ethics, and the Treatment of Animals (Philosophy 2980) 
Wagner College Bioethics (Biology 230) 
Washington State University Reverence for Life (Veterinary Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology 499) 
SOURCE: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare (Bethesda, MD), “College Course on Ethics and Animals,” Newsletter 5(2):3-6, 1983. 
sities. Some of the health professional schools were 
included in other categories (e.g., universities with 
affiliated professional schools) and thus accounted 
for a smaller number of such schools identified 
separately than expected. 
For this assessment, animal use in medical edu- 
cation and veterinary education was examined in 
detail for the school year 1983-84. Comparisons 
with the 1978 ILAR survey are inappropriate be- 
cause of different survey methodology. 
Medical Education 
Animals are used in many capacities in medical 
education. In the basic sciences, they are often used 
to illustrate the structure and function of the sys- 
tems under study and the complex physiologic 
interactions within a single organism. They func- 
tion as intermediaries during a medical student's 
transition from trainee to practicing physician, let- 
ting students cultivate their skills on other living 
creatures before they actually apply those same 
techniques to human patients. Techniques such 
as venipuncture, insertion of catheters, and other 
procedure-oriented exercises are those cited by 
medical educators as needing practice before pa- 
tients are worked with. The need to practice inva- 
sive surgical procedures prior to human surgery 
is probably the most compelling use of animals by 
medical students. 
It is generally held that doctors must learn the 
techniques of their profession. And most commen- 
tators acknowledge the need for students in the 
health professions to subject animals to some prac- 
tice surgery, albeit closely regulated (17). The is- 
sue of animal use in medical education thus seems 
more a question of degree and manner of use 
rather than one of whether or not animals should 
be used at all. 
Yet, practicing techniques on animals is not 
universally condoned. In the United Kingdom, live 
animals cannot be used by students practicing or- 
dinary surgery solely to improve manual dexterity 
and technique. (This does not necessarily mean 
that medical and veterinary students do not im- 
prove their techniques by using live animals, but 
such activities must have some other purpose.) Phy- 
sicians are trained by a process similar to appren- 
ticeship, learning by observation, demonstration, 
and example. They assist an accomplished surgeon 
and expand their active role only as their abilities 
increase. 
