204 • Alternatives to Animal Use in Research, Testing, and Education 
In 1985, the British Government relaxed its stric- 
ture in order to allow animal use in microsurgical 
training (22): 
Generations of surgeons and veterinary sur- 
geons have been trained without practising on 
live animals and the Government intends future 
generations to do so as well. But the new devel- 
opment of microsurgery— which is surgery per- 
formed with miniature instruments under a mi- 
croscope, for example, to repair blood vessels or 
nerves— presents special problems. The delicate 
techniques involved cannot be practised satisfac- 
torily on dead subjects . Surgeons at present have 
to go abroad or practise on decerebrate animals 
which for this purpose is technically complicated 
and sometimes more wasteful of animals than 
using terminally anaesthetised ones. Microsur- 
gery will be the only surgical skill which we at 
present contemplate permitting to be practised 
on living animals. The consent of the Secretary 
of State will be required in every case, and he 
will only give it to qualified surgeons working 
on approved microsurgical courses on rodents 
which are anaesthetised throughout the proce- 
dure and killed before the animal can recover con- 
sciousness. 
In general, adequate training through staged ex- 
ercises is regarded as a prerequisite for success- 
ful microsurgery (11). 
To ascertain patterns of animal use in medical 
education during the school year 1983-84, the Asso- 
ciation of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) sur- 
veyed 16 of the 127 accredited medical schools 
in the United States. The 16 schools surveyed were 
selected in an effort to achieve balance in three 
characteristics: ownership (10 public and 6 pri- 
vate); geographical region (4 each in the North- 
east, Midwest, South, and West); and research ex- 
penditures (5 high, 5 medium, and 6 low) (2). 
The AAMC distributed questionnaires to each 
department in the sample schools and followed 
up with telephone calls. Because differing curric- 
ula made analysis by department problematic, 
queries were oriented to each of the disciplines 
known to be present in undergraduate and grad- 
uate medical education. Anatomy, for example, is 
taught by the surgery department in some schools, 
but animal use in these exercises was still recorded 
in the discipline of anatomy (2). 
Anatomy, biochemistry, microbiology, pathol- 
ogy, pharmacology, and physiology are part of the 
curriculum leading to the M .D . degree everywhere, 
and data for these disciplines were obtained from 
all 16 schools. The data for all other disciplines 
except family medicine and advanced trauma life 
support were obtained from at least 15 of the 16 
schools surveyed. Family medicine is offered at 
only 10 of the 16 institutions (all responded). Ad- 
vanced trauma life support, a course for house 
staff rather than medical students, is offered at 
only 7 of the 16 institutions (all responded) (2). 
The use of animals was common in only a few 
disciplines (see table 9-3), although all 16 institu- 
tions used animals in some discipline. Animal use 
in medical education was most common in physi- 
ology (10 of 16 schools), surgery (10 of 16), and 
pharmacology (8 of 16). In other disciplines, no 
more than 7 of the 16 medical schools used ani- 
mals for educational purposes . Advanced trauma 
life support involved animal use at all 7 schools 
where it was offered (2). 
Table 9-3.— Instructional Use of Animals in 16 Selected 
U.S. Medical Schools, by Discipline, 1983-84 
Discipline 
Number of 
schools with 
discipline 
Use 
animals 
Do not use 
animals 
No 
response 
Advanced trauma iife 
support 
7 
7 
0 
0 
Anatomy 
16 
2 
14 
0 
Anesthesiology 
16 
2 
14 
0 
Biochemistry 
16 
3 
13 
0 
Dermatology 
16 
0 
15 
1 
Family medicine 
10 
0 
10 
0 
Internal medicine .... 
16 
1 
14 
1 
Microbiology 
16 
4 
12 
0 
Neurology 
16 
0 
16 
0 
Neurosurgery 
16 
5 
11 
0 
Obstetrics and 
gynecology 
16 
1 
14 
'l 
Ophthalmology 
16 
3 
13 
0 
Otolaryngology 
16 
2 
14 
0 
Pathology 
16 
0 
16 
0 
Pediatrics 
16 
3 
12 
1 
Pharmacology 
16 
8 
8 
0 
Physiology 
16 
10 
6 
0 
Psychiatry 
16 
1 
15 
0 
Radiology 
16 
0 
16 
0 
Surgery 
16 
10 
6 
0 
Surgery, orthopedic . . 
16 
4 
12 
0 
Urology 
16 
1 
15 
0 
SOURCE: Association of American Medical Colleges. Use of Animals in Undergraduate and Gradu- 
ate Medical Education (Washington, DC: 1985). 
