246 • Alternatives to Animal Use in Research, Testing, and Education 
Of course, this approach ignores both the costs 
of research before 1900 (or 1930) that contrib- 
uted benefits after those years and any research 
conducted before 1975 for which the benefits had 
not fully accrued. The latter is more confound- 
ing because much more research was done in the 
last decade of the study than any other, so the 
benefits could not be fully counted. Undervalue 
also occurs because it is impossible to measure 
the value of not being ill. Yet, other assumptions 
in the study may overvalue the benefits by ne- 
glecting changes in nutrition, lifestyle, and work- 
ing conditions. 
Benefits exceeded costs in this study by factors 
ranging from 4 to 16, depending on the assump- 
tions made in calculating benefits and whether 
the time period is from 1900 to 1975 or 1930 to 
1975. Expressing the results in another way, the 
savings in health -related costs due to the increase 
in knowledge was estimated to be $115 billion to 
$407 billion (4,20). 
Savings were also calculated for various disease 
categories. As can be seen in table 11-1, research 
costs in certain areas have exceeded benefits ac- 
cruing over the same period (as indicated by a 
minus sign). Table 11-2 provides related informa- 
tion about levels of funding in selected years, 
showing how funding grew during the same 
period. The research budget for 1975 corresponded 
to almost 9 percent of the costs associated with 
neoplasms (data not shown in tables), whereas all 
other budget -to -cost ratios were below 1.4 per- 
cent (20). 
Although economic and financial data such as 
these are useful in making policy judgments, most 
decisions about using animals are more compli- 
cated and take into account political and technical 
considerations, as well as economic ones. Mone- 
tary costs and benefits must be balanced with fac- 
tors such as scientists' desire to be certain and 
society’s desire to have animals treated in a hu- 
mane fashion. Economic analysis focuses on only 
part of the equation, and cannot be the sole basis 
for decisions. 
One example of the tension between financial 
and other criteria is exemplified by the question 
of whether pound animals should be used in lab- 
oratory studies. A recent survey indicates that 
about three times as many dogs and cats are ob- 
tained from pounds and dealers (who often pur- 
chase from pounds) as are purpose-bred for lab- 
oratory use (18). Scientists have argued that 
Table 11-1.— Total Savings Attributable to Biomedical Research 3 (in billions) 
Disease category 
1900-75 simulation 
1930-75 simulation 
Total b 
. $299.37 
to 
$479.83 
$145.65 
to 
$167.76 
Infective and parasitic diseases 
. 118.35 
to 
174.16 
63.15 
to 
69.23 
Neoplasms 
-2.66 
to 
-3.17 
-1.17 
to 
-1.40 
Endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 
0.28 
to 
0.95 
-1.57 
to 
-0.99 
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs 
0.76 
to 
1.27 
5.22 
to 
5.45 
Mental disorders 
9.20 
to 
21.88 
3.73 
to 
3.72 
Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs 
14.76 
to 
24.31 
-3.32 
to 
-2.70 
Diseases of the circulatory system 
10.68 
to 
18.11 
-6.42 
to 
-4.91 
Diseases of the respiratory system 
71.75 
to 
116.38 
23.44 
to 
27.56 
Diseases of the digestive system, oral cavity, salivary glands, 
and jaws 
12.96 
to 
21.62 
23.53 
to 
26.53 
Diseases of the genitourinary system 
23.58 
to 
37.28 
9.27 
to 
10.96 
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum 
4.59 
to 
7.88 
10.92 
to 
11.62 
Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue 
0.93 
to 
1.76 
2.98 
to 
3.04 
Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and 
connective tissue 
6.19 
to 
14.59 
-11.04 
to 
-10.98 
Congenital anomalies 
7.56 
to 
10.08 
-1.41 
to 
-1.11 
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality 
2.80 
to 
3.73 
4.38 
to 
6.58 
Symptoms and ill-defined conditions 
14.46 
to 
19.80 
-2.10 
to 
-1.67 
Accidents, poisonings, and violence 
4.08 
to 
9.39 
26.05 
to 
26.86 
a Minus signs indicate costs exceeded benefits. 
b Totals may not add due to rounding. 
SOURCES: 1900-75 simulation: S.J. Mushkin, Biomedical Research: Costs and Benefits (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Co., 1979); 1930-75 simulation: A. Berk 
and L.C. Paringer, Economic Costs of Illness, 1930-1975 (Washington, DC: Public Services Laboratory, Georgetown University, 1977). 
