Ch. 11 — Economic Considerations • 247 
Table 11-2.— Estimated Biomedical Research Outlays, Selected Years, 1900-75 (in millions) 
Disease category 
1900 
1930 
1963 
1975 
Total® 
$0.1570 
$10.0180 
$1,561.0 
$4,640.0 
Infective and parasitic diseases 
0.0476 
1 .0329 
17.2 
37.6 
Neoplasms 
0.0195 
2.8291 
847.6 
2,464.8 
Endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 
0.0006 
0.2775 
33.2 
109.0 
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs 
0.0003 
0.0701 
4.5 
12.5 
Mental disorders 
0.0005 
0.0461 
4.1 
22.7 
Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs 
0.0072 
0.2164 
14.2 
41.3 
Diseases of the circulatory system 
0.0039 
0.9136 
252.4 
876.0 
Diseases of the respiratory system 
0.0305 
1 .0609 
96.5 
261.7 
Diseases of the digestive system, oral cavity, salivary glands, and jaws . 
0.0060 
0.7273 
62.3 
175.4 
Diseases of the genitourinary system 
0.0129 
0.9338 
25.8 
66.8 
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum 
0.0009 
0.1142 
1.2 
0.9 
Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue 
0.0002 
0.0160 
1.9 
4.6 
Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue 
0.0006 
0.0240 
3.3 
12.1 
Congenital anomalies 
— 
0.1092 
18.4 
32.0 
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality 
0.0085 
0.4448 
50.0 
68.7 
Symptoms and ill-defined conditions 
0.0096 
0.2725 
19.4 
74.2 
Accidents, poisonings, and violence 
0.0068 
0.9377 
109.0 
379.6 
a Totals may not add due to rounding. 
SOURCE: Data from S.J. Mushkin, Biomedical Research: Costs and Benefits (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Co., 1979). 
pound animals are much cheaper than purpose- 
bred ones and that it would be wasteful to de- 
stroy them when they could be used. The differ- 
ence in price between a purpose -bred and a 
pound dog ranges from $200 to $500 per animal. 
Estimates of the impact on research of a ban on 
using pound animals range from a tenfold in- 
crease in costs to effectively stopping research 
in Los Angeles County (25). Others have argued 
that pound animals are poorly suited to most lab- 
oratory work because they are often in poor 
health and their genetic background is usually un- 
certain (25). 
It may seem ethically desirable to make use of 
animals that would be killed anyway, but an ani- 
mal that had been a pet may find laboratory con- 
ditions more stressful than a purpose-bred ani- 
mal would. Other nonpecuniary considerations 
are that people may hesitate to bring their ani- 
mals to a pound if they oppose laboratory use of 
pound animals and that those using pound ani- 
mals will see them as cheap, disposable experi- 
mental tools that need not be conserved (22). 
Supporting Patent Claims 
Data derived from animal research have pro- 
prietary value and are often used to support pat- 
ent applications for drugs or devices for humans. 
Patents give the inventor an exclusive right to 
make and sell the patented invention, thus pro- 
viding an incentive to invent, which in turn fuels 
a growing economy. Thus, animal use can have 
important economic consequences in addition to 
improvement in health. 
To obtain a patent, an inventor must show that 
the invention is novel and useful and must dis- 
close how to make it and use it. Data from studies 
with humans are normally obtained to support 
a patent on an invention to be used by humans, 
but data on animals can provide evidence of util- 
ity as well (12,15). And because they are normally 
obtained before research is done on humans, such 
data sometimes play a crucial role in determin- 
ing the date of an invention, which could deter- 
mine who gets the patent in the case of two com- 
peting inventors. 
Utility can be demonstrated with animal studies, 
but only if the data would convince someone of 
ordinary skill in the art that the same effect would 
be observed in humans (14). The character and 
quantity of evidence needed to show utility de- 
pend, in part, on whether the results agree with 
established beliefs (13). Courts recognize that an 
animal may respond differently than a human 
would (16), and in demonstrating the utility of an 
invention it is not necessary to demonstrate safety 
(11,17). 
